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Colleqe 


University  of  Illinois 

Library  at 

Urbana-Champaign 
ACES 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


BULLETIN  NO.  129 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP 


BY  W.  C.  COPFEY 


URBANA,  ILLINOIS,  NOVEMBER,  1908 


SUMMARY  OF  BULLETIN  129 

1.  The  market  classes  of  sheep  are  Mutton,  Feeder  and  Breed- 
ing sheep.    The  name  of  a  class  indicates  the  use  to  which  sheep 
in  that  class  are  put. 

2.  Each  class  is  divided  into  sub-classes  and  these  again  into 
grades.  In  general  the  names  of  the  sub-classes  suggest  differences 
of  either  age  or   sex  between    sheep    put  to  the    same  use.      The 
grades  refer  to  differences  between  the  best  and  the  less  desirable 
animals  in  the  various  sub-classes.     In  the  mutton  class  these  dif- 
ferences are  based  on  quality,  condition,  weight  and  form;   in  the 
feeder  class,  on  quality,  form,  constitution,  condition  and  weight; 
and  in  the  breeding  class,  on  age,  constitution,  form,  breeding, 
quality  and  condition. 

3.  MUTTON   SHEEP. — The  mutton  class   includes  both   native 
and  western  sheep.    The  sub-classes  are  lambs,  yearlings,  wethers, 
ewes,  bucks  and  stags.  Page  579. 

Lambs. — About  eighty  percent  of  the  sheep  sent  to  slaughter 
are  lambs.  The  grades  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium,  and  com- 
mon or  culls.  Quality,  condition,  form,  and  weight  are  the  factors 
considered  in  determining  the  grade  to  which  lambs  belong.  Both 
quality  and  condition  are  very  important  and  lambs  without  high 
development  in  both  are  not  placed  in  the  higher  grades.  Form, 
especially  the  feature  of  paunchiness,  is  significant  in  grading 
lambs.  Weight  is  a  factor  that  varies  somewhat  with  the  different 
times  in  the  year,  but  lambs  weighing  80  pounds  and  prime  in 
quality,  condition  and  form  will  always  grade  as  prime.  Page  580. 

Yearlings. — Yearlings  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  lambs  in  the 
meat  trade.  The  grades  are  prime,  choice,  good.  Prime  yearlings 
are  light  in  weight,  immature,  and  very  highly  developed  in  qual- 
ity and  condition.  Page  594. 

Wethers. — Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  sheep  sent  to  market 
are  wethers.  This  percentage  is  small  because  both  growers  and 
consumers  prefer  lambs  to  older  sheep.  The  grades  are  prime, 
choice,  good,  common.  Prime  wethers  have  the  same  require- 
ments in  quality  and  condition  as  prime  yearlings.  They  may  be 
either  light,  weighing  from  95  to  no  pounds,  or  heavy,  weighing 
140  pounds  or  more.  Page  598. 

Ewes. — Ewes  do  not  sell  on  a  par  with  wethers  because  they 
have  proportionately  a  greater  amount  of  offal  and  a  smaller 
amount  of  lean  meat.  The  grades  are  prime,  choice,  good,  medium 


and  common  or  culls.     The  requirements  in  condition,  quality  and 

weight  are  practically  the  same  as  for  wethers.  Page  604. 

Bucks  and  Stags. — Choice  bucks  are  fat  and  resemble  wethers 

in  form  and  quality.  Page  607. 

4.  FEEDER  SHEEP. — Feeder  sheep  are  almost  exclusively  west- 
ern  sheep.      The   sub-classes   are  lambs,   yearlings,   wethers  and 
ewes.  Page  609. 

Lambs. — The  grades  are  fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  medium, 
common.  Choice  feeder  lambs  show  thrifty  condition,  a  high  de- 
gree of  quality  and  weigh  between  55  and  62  pounds.  Page  609. 

Yearlings. — The  grades  are  choice,  good,  common.  The  choice 
feeder  yearling  must  be  of  good  form,  highly  developed  in  quality 
and  light  in  weight.  Page  615. 

Wethers. — The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  common.  In 
general  the  requirements  are  the  same  as  for  yearlings.  Page  619. 

Ewes. — The  grades  are  choice,  good,  medium,  and  common. 
Choice  feeder  ewes  are  young  and  choice  in  quality.  Page  624. 

5.  BREEDING  SHEEP. — The    sub-classes  are    bucks  and    ewes. 

Page  627. 

Ewes. — Breeding  ewes  are  selected  from  both  native  and  west- 
ern offerings.  The  grades  are  fancy  selected,  choice,  good,  com- 
mon. Choice  breeding  ewes  are  from  two  to  four  years  old,  sound, 
well  formed  and  well  bred.  Page  627. 

Bucks. — Breeding  bucks  are  not  sub-divided  into  grades.  All 
offerings  are  natives.  Page  630. 


OUTLINE 


CLASSES 


SUB-CLASSES 

r 

LAMBS 


MUTTON  SHEEP 

(Native  and  Western  Sheep) 


YEARLINGS 


FEEDER  SHEEP 

(Western  Sheep) 


BREEDING  SHEEP 

(Native  and  Western  Sheep) 


MISCELLANEOUS 

HOT  HOUSE  LAMBS 
EXPORT  SHEEP 
THROW-OUTS 
DEAD  SHEEP 
GOATS 


EWES 


BUCKS  AND 
STAGS 


LAMBS 


YEARLINGS 


WETHERS 


EWES 


•{  EWES 


BUCKS 


GRADES 

PRIME 

CHOICE 

GOOD 

MEDIUM 

COMMON  OR  CULLS 

PRIME 

CHOICE 

GOOD 

f  PRIME 
J  CHOICE 
|  GOOD 
^  COMMON 

f  PRIME 

|  CHOICE 

•(  GOOD 

|  MEDIUM 

^  COMMON  OR  CULLS 

{CHOICE 
GOOD 
COMMON 

FANCY  SELECTED 

CHOICE 

GOOD 

MEDIUM 

COMMON 

(CHOICE 
GOOD 
COMMON 

(  CHOICE 
j  GOOD 
j  MEDIUM 
(^  COMMON 

(  CHOICE 
j  GOOD 
•j  MEDIUM 

^  COMMON 

c  FANCY  SELECTED 

CHOICE 
•i  GOOD 
i  COMMON 

(Not  graded) 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP 

BY  W.  C.  COFFEY,  FIRST  ASSISTANT  m  SHEEP  HUSBANDRY 

INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  define  and  illustrate  the  vari- 
ous classes  and  grades  of  sheep  as  recognized  on  the  Chicago  and 
other  large  markets.     It  is  presented  with  the  hope  that  it  will  be 
of  value  to  those  engaged  in  growing  and  handling  sheep.     The 
grower  or  feeder  offering  sheep  for  sale  often  forms  a  very  imper- 
fect estimate  of  their  market  value,  and  chiefly  because  his  contact 
with  the  open  market  has  not  been  sufficient  to  familiarize  him  with 
the  factors  embodied  by  the  various  terms  in  market  reports.     It 
may  be  that  he  is  ignorant  of  the  meaning  of  certain  terms;    he 
may  have  a  mistaken  or  hazy  notion  of  others,  and  both  observa- 
tion and  experience  show  that  anything  short  of  a  fairly  accurate 
conception  of  what  a  certain  market  term  stands  for  is  a  source  of 
disappointment  and  annoyance.     Because  his  judgment  as  to  the 
true  market  worth  of  his  sheep  is  uncertain,  the  owner  may  suffer 
a  financial  loss  in  dealing  with  a  local  buyer  by  selling  under  the 
market  value  or  by  missing  a  sale  by  asking  too  much  for  them. 
If,  at  the  time  of  sale,  the  owner  could  definitely  determine  the 
value  of  his  sheep,  he  would  experience  less  difficulty  in  coming  to 
an  early  understanding  with  the  local  buyer,  or  in  case  he  shipped 
them  direct  to  the  open  market,  the  chances  for  disappointment  and 
dissatisfaction  would  be  greatly  reduced.    While  it  is  the  privilege 
of  a  few  to  visit  the  markets  often  and  tKere  learn  the  requirements 
and  the  demands  for  the  different  grades  in  the  various  classes,  the 
great  majority  of  sheep  owners,  and  many  feeders,  must  depend 
largely  upon  the  market  reports  for  such  information,  and  the  value 
of  these  reports  to  the  man  who  proposes  to  buy  or  sell  sheep  is 
determined  by  the  extent  to  which  he  can  apply  them  to  his  par- 
ticular purchase  or  sale.      It  is  hoped  that  the  descriptions  and 
illustrations  herein  presented  will  give  the  sheep  owner  an  under- 
standing of  the  market  classes  and  grades  of  sheep  so  that  the 
market  reports  will  not  be  misapplied  by  him.    It  is  also  hoped  that 
it  will  have  the  further  influence  of  leading  men  to  adopt  methods 
of  breeding  and  feeding  whereby  they  will  be  able  to  produce  ani- 
mals that  will  meet  with  strong  demand  upon  the  markets. 

The  task  undertaken  is  not  without  its  difficult  phases.  The 
grades  in  the  different  classes  are  more  or  less  variable  because  of 
variations  in  quality,  condition,  and  weight,  the  apparent  supply 

577 


578 


BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 


of  she  -•  and  the  activity  of  the  mutton  trade.  It  is  exceedingly 
difficult" to  describe  accurately  animals  typical  of  the  various  grades. 
Photographs  are  hard  to  secure  because  sheep  are  yarded  in  cov- 
ered pens  where  the  nature  of  the  light  defeats  the  most  skillful 
photographer.  While  photographs  are  helpful  in  fixing  the  differ- 
ent grades  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  it  is  impossible  to  present  a 
photograph  that  is  universally  typical  of  a  particular  grade,  because 
of  variations  in  the  markings  and  wool  of  sheep  coming  in  that 
grade.  Then,  too,  photographs  of  sheep  often  do  not  have  a  de- 
scriptive effect  or  the  effect  of  corroborating  a  description  satis- 
factorily, for  the  reason  that  the  wool  conceals,  in  a  large  measure, 
the  condition  and  many  times  the  form  of  the  animal.  In  cases 
where  the  difference  between  two  adjoining  grades  in  the  same 
class  is  due  to  condition  alone,  photographs  are  of  very  little  aid 
in  showing  this  difference. 

Another  difficulty  arises  from,  the  variation  which  exists  in  the 
use  of  terms  by  those  engaged  in  buying,  selling  and  reporting 
sheep  on  the  market.  For  example,  such  words  as  choice  and 
prime  are  frequently  used  interchangeably  by  the  same  party,  or 
different  parties  use  unlike  terms  with  reference  to  the  same  thing. 

In  submitting  the  classification  given  in  the  following  pages,  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  present  the  subject  true  to  existing  condi- 
tions, and  in  such  i  way  that  the  average  reader  will  understand 
it.  The  writer  does  not  wish  the  foregoing  statements  to  impress 
the  reader  with  the  idea  that  the  classification  which  follows  is 
other  than  that  actually  in  use.  While  it  is  often  imperfectly  and 
loosely  quoted,  and  greatly  abridged  by  buyers  and  salesmen  in 
everyday  practice,  it  is  none  the  less  the  true  classification. 

This  bulletin  is  the  result  of  a  personal  investigation  of  the 
subject  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards,  Chicago,  where  every  possible 
courtesy  was  extended  by  the  officials  of  the  Union  Stock  Yards 
and  Transit  Company,  live  stock  commission  companies,  packers, 
Government  inspectors,  and  by  representatives  of  the  live  stock 
journals.  The  greater  number  of  the  photographs  from  which  the 
engravings  were  made  were  taken  in  the  Chicago  Union  Stock 
Yards  especially  for  use  in  this  work. 

NATIVE  AND  WESTERN  SHEEP 

Native  sheep  are  those  produced — ordinarily  in  small  flocks — 
on  the  farms  of  the  central,  southern  and  eastern  states.  Western 
sheep  are  those  produced — usually  in  large  bands — on  the  ranges 
of  the  western  states.  As  a  rule  western  sheep  have  enough  Merino 


1908.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  579 

blood  to  make  them  markedly  different  in  appearance  from  natives 
which  are  mostly  from  mutton-bred  parents.  But  even  were  they 
identical  in  breeding,  buyers  and  salesmen  on  the  market  could 
easily  distinguish  between  them  because  of  differences  resulting 
from  the  way  in  which  they  are  fed  and  managed.  On  markets 
where  both  native  and  western  sheep  are  received,  the  daily  reports 
nearly  always  distinguish  between  them,  but  in  this  bulletin  no  at- 
tempt is  made  to  classify  them  separately  where  they  are  both  put 
to  the  same  use.  Hence  both  native  and  western  sheep  are  placed 
in  the  mutton  and  in  the  breeding  classes,  but  only  western  sheep 
are  placed  in  the  feeder  class.  While  thin  natives  are  often  bought 
up  in  the  country  and  successfully  fed,  those  that  reach  the  market 
in  low  condition  do  not  sell  as  feeders  because  they  are  usually  in- 
fested with  internal  parasites,  thus  making  it  difficult  and  in  many 
instances  impossible  to  fatten  them. 

Upon  our  larger  markets  and  in  daily  live  stock  reports,  west- 
ern sheep  and  lambs  are  not  infrequently  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  the  state  in  which  they  were  supposed  to  have  been  produced  or 
fed,  as  Montanas,  Colorados,  Mexicans,  Idahpes,  etc.  No  attempt 
has  been  made,  in  this  bulletin,  to  attach  importance  to  such  terms 
because  the  differences  between  sheep  from  different  western  states 
are  many  times  almost  imperceptible  and  those  differences  are  due 
to  condition,  quality,  and  breeding  which  must  inevitably  vary 
somewhat  within  a  state. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  another  very  common 
practice  which  is  to  prefix  the  word  "fed"  before  a  certain  class 
and  grade  to  distinguish  grain  from  grass-fattened  sheep.  The 
term  is  used  for  a  short  time  in  the  autumn  and  in  the  spring  when 
both  grain  and  grass-fattened  sheep  are  coming  to  market,  and  it 
signifies  so  little  that  it  is  not  given  recognition  in  the  outline  of 
this  work. 

MUTTON  SHEEP 

All  sheep  and  lambs  sent  to  market  for  slaughter,  no  matter 
what  the  condition,  age,  or  weight,  are  classed  as  mutton  sheep. 

Of  the  various  sub-classes,  the  one  known  as  lambs  is  by  far 
the  most  important,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  producer  can  most 
profitably  market  his  sheep  as  lambs  and  also  that  lamb  is  preferred 
to  mutton  by  the  consumer.  However,  mature  mutton  sheep  will 
always  be  a  feature  on  the  market  because  it  is  the  channel  of  dis- 
posal for  surplus  and  spent  breeding  stock. 

Mutton  sheep  upon  the  Chicago  market  are  either  slaughtered 
at  the  Chicago  packing  houses  or  reshipped,  principally  to  Phila- 


580  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November 

delphia,  New  York,  Baltimore,  Washington  and  Buffalo.  These 
live  shipments  are  usually  made  up  of  choice  grades.  The  sheep 
slaughtered  in  Chicago  are  disposed  of  locally  and  by  shipments 
to  other  consuming  centers.  The  following  sub-classes  mark  the 
divisions  under  which  mutton  sheep  are  graded:  LAMBS,  YEAR- 
LINGS, WETHERS,  EWES,  BUCKS  and  STAGS. 

LAMBS 

It  is  estimated  by  traders  upon  the  Chicago  market  that  at  least 
eighty  percent  of  the  sheep  received  at  that  place  are  lambs.  This 
observation  in  part  confirms  the  current  statement  that  mutton 
production  has  become  very  largely  a  lamb  proposition.  As  stated 
in  the  discussion  under  Mutton  Sheep,  both  the  producer  and  the 
consumer  prefer  lambs  to  older  sheep.  They  are  preferred  by  the 
producer  because  they  make  cheaper  gains  than  sheep,  and  by  the 
consumer  because  they  are  more  palatable  and  more  convenient  to 
use. 

At  from  twelve  to  fourteen  months  of  age  lambs  pass  into  the 
yearling  and  ewe  classes.  But  it  is  the  degree  of  maturity  the 
young  animal  has  attained  rather  than  a  set,  definite  age  which 
determines  whether  or  not  it  belongs  to  the  lamb  class.  Native 
lambs  usually  reach  maturity  at  an  earlier  age  than  western  lambs 
because  they  receive  a  greater  abundance  of  feed,  and  they  are  gen- 
erally free  from  Merino  blood.  Let  it  be  understood  that  the  above 
statement  is  no  disparagement  to  Merino  blood.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  slower  approach  to  maturity, 
which  holds  an  animal  in  the  lamb  class  for  a  longer  time,  may 
prove  a  decided  advantage.  For  example,  a  feeder  may  buy  light 
western  lambs  in  October  or  November  and  feed  them  until  the 
following  May,  at  which  time  they  will  still  be  classed  as  lambs, 
while  native  lambs  of  the  same  age  and  similarly  treated  would  be 
regarded  as  sheep.  Because  the  term  lamb  applies  to  a  compara- 
tively long  period  in  the  life  of  the  animal,  there  comes  a  time  in 
the  year  when  for  several  weeks  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  sepa- 
rate quotations  on  lambs,  one  of  which  is  designated  as  spring 
lambs  to  distinguish  lambs  that  are  born  in  the  year  the  quotations 
are  made,  from  those  that  were  born  the  year  previous.  These 
separate  quotations  first  appear  about  May  20,  and  continue  until 
July  i.  After  the  latter  date  all  offerings  born  in  the  spring  of 
the  previous  year  are  known  as  yearlings  or  ewes. 

The  most  important  factors  in  determining  the  grade  to  which 
lambs  belong  are  form,  quality,  condition  and  weight,  and  the 
grades  recognized  on  the  market  are:  PRIME,  CHOICE,  GOOD, 
MEDIUM,  COMMON  or  CULLS. 


iyo8.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  581 

PRIME  LAMBS 

It  is  understood  that  when  lambs  are  graded  as  prime  they  are 
the  very  best  of  the  class  that  may  be  generally  expected  on  the 
market.  Prime  lambs  are  taken  largely  for  fancy  city  market,  ho- 
tel and  restaurant  trade.  Such  lambs  are  practically  above  criticism 
in  quality,  condition  and  weight.  They  are  usually  secured  by  sort- 
ing the  best  out  of  a  band.  This  is  especially  true  of  native  lambs 
where  the  offerings  in  one  shipment  are  likely  to  be  very  uneven. 

Before  a  lamb  is  graded  as  prime  it  is  determined  by  sight  and 
touch  that  it  possesses  the  form,  quality,  condition  and  weight  de- 
manded by  the  dealer  in  high-class  mutton. 

FORM. — The  butcher  demands  the  form  that  shows  the  most 
development  in  the  loin,  back,  and  leg  of  mutton.  He  demands 
development  in  these  regions  because  they  are  the  parts  from  which 
the  high-priced  cuts  are  secured.  The  animal  should  show  a  great 
deal  of  depth  and  breadth  and  no  tendency  to  be  paunchy,  because 
paunchiness  adds  to  the  percentage  of  waste  in  slaughtering.  The 
grime  lamb  should  present  a  general  fullness  and  smoothness  of 
outline,  both  of  which  indicate  thickness  and  evenness  of  flesh. 
There  should  be  an  absence  of  roughness  because  the  waste  in  the 
dressing  of  the  rough,  ungainly  lamb  is  large  in  proportion  to  thi 
carcass,  and  furthermore,  the  appearance  of  the  carcass  of  such 
a  lamb  fails  in  attractiveness  when  placed  on  exhibition  in  the 
market.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  form  is  enhanced  if  the  body 
is  supported  by  short  legs.  However,  many  prime  lambs  have  only 
moderately  short  legs.  Very  lone  legs  detract  from  the  dressed 
yield  and  from  the  appearance  of  the  carcass,  when  displayed,  and 
on  this  account  lambs  that  are  decidedly  upstanding  do  not  grade 
as  prime. 

QUALITY  AND  CONDITION. —  (i)  General  Quality. — The  degree 
of  development  in  this  characteristic  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  determining  the  value  of  fat  lambs.  General  quality  is  indicated 
by  a  medium  sized,  clean  cut  head,  ears  of  fine  texture,  and  fine, 
but  strong  bone,  a  light  pelt,  and  full,  well-rounded  outlines.  All 
these  suggest  a  freedom  from  that  coarseness  which  adds  to  the 
waste  in  dressing,  and  the  unattractiveness  which  works  against 
the  value  of  the  carcass.  Of  the  items  of  general  quality  enumer- 
ated, lightness  of  pelt  is  the  most  essential.  By  pelt  is  meant  the 
skin  and  wool  combined.  To  secure  a  pelt  of  light  weight,  the 
skin  should  be  comparatively  thin  and  free  from  folds  or  wrinkles, 
and  the  wool  should  not  be  very  dense  or  oily.  The  only  time 
when  the  heavier  weight  of  pelt  seems  to  be  favored  is  in  the  spring 
when  both  shorn  and  unshorn  sheep  and  lambs  are  being  marketed. 


582  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

During  these  months  the  difference  in  price  between  shorn  and  un- 
shorn lambs  varies  from  $.75  to  $1.25  per  hundred  weight  in  favor 
of  the  unshorn  lambs.  The  amount  of  difference  depends  on  the 
condition  of  the  wool  market  and  the  time  in  the  season  when  the 
lambs  are  slaughtered.  The  difference  usually  becomes  less  as  the 
hot  weather  approaches,  because  it  is  claimed  the  carcasses  of  un- 
shorn lambs  deteriorate  in  quality  on  account  of  the  discomfort  the 
lambs  suffer  in  hot  weather  from  being  left  in  their  fleeces.  Let  it 
be  remembered  that  the  discrimination  in  favor  of  the  heavier  pelt 
holds  only  in  cases  where  shorn  and  unshorn  sheep  or  lambs  are 
compared.  Of  two  lambs  in  the  wool,  the  one  with  the  lighter  pelt 
is  always  preferred  provided  they  are  otherwise  equal.  The  ques- 
tion is  often  asked  why  sheep  or  lambs  with  heavy  pelts  are  dis- 
criminated against  when  they  carry  a  greater  weight  of  wool  than 
those  with  light  pelts.  This  question  arises  naturally  because  wool 
is  worth  a  great  deal  more  per  pound  than  mutton  and  it  would 
seem  that  lambs  with  heavy  fleeces  should  be  credited  with  the 
greater  amount  of  wool  they  produce.  In  a  large  packing  plant 
the  slaughtering  department  usually  delivers  pelts  having  wool  at 
about  the  same  staee  of  growth  to  the  wool  pullery  department  at 
a  uniform  price.  Hence  the  department  buying  the  lambs  does  not 
discriminate  in  favor  of  those  having  heavy  fleeces.  If  the  buyer 
for  the  packer  were  required  to  base  his  bids  upon  the  wool  as  well 
as  the  mutton  yields,  his  task  would  be  greatly  complicated  because 
in  estimating  the  yield  of  wool  he  would  be  obliged  to  determine 
how  much  of  the  pelt  is  wool  and  how  much  of  it  is  skin.  Hence 
the  packer  instructs  the  buyer  to  be  governed  chiefly  by  the  per- 
centage of  marketable  meat  the  lamb  will  yield  and  not  by  the 
combined  product  of  mutton  and  wool. 

The  weight  of  pelt  may  be  appreciably  influenced  by  the  con- 
dition of  the  wool,  with  reference  to  foreign  material  and  mois- 
ture in  it.  Should  lambs  be  very  wet,  buyers  may  refuse  to  bid  on 
them  until  they  become  more  nearly  dry,  and  if  bids  are  made  on 
offerings  whose  wool  contains  an  unusual  percentage  of  moisture, 
the  buyer  attempts  to  allow  for  it  by  the  price  he  offers.  Foreign 
material  such  as  mud,  sand,  or  dung,  may  be  lodged  in  the  wool, 
and  the  buyer  protects  himself  from  loss  upon  such  offerings  by 
bidding  less  per  pound  for  them  than  if  they  were  clean.  Such  bids 
usually  work  against  the  owner,  and  hence  it  pays  to  market  lambs 
i:i  clean  condition.  Occasionally  the  general  quality  of  lambs  may 
be  developed  to  such  a  marked  degree  that  they  will  sell  as  prime 
even  though  they  be  somewhat  deficient  in  form.  A  notable  ex- 
ample is  the  fat  Mexican  lamb.  From  the  standpoint  of  form  the 
Mexicans  are  not  especially  attractive,  since  they  are  upstanding 


1908.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  583 

and  have  narrow  bodies  and  long  necks,  but  they  are  unequaled  in 
the  fineness  of  their  features  and  their  lightness  of  pelt.  Without 
their  high  development  of  general  quality  they  would  not  receive 
favorable  consideration  from  buyers,  but  because  of  it,  when  fat, 
they  top  the  market. 

(2)  Quality  of  Flesh  and  Condition. — The  terms  quality  and 
condition  are  frequently  used  interchangeably  on  the  market,  and 
chiefly  because  the  quality  of  flesh  is  largely  dependent  upon  con- 
dition. By  condition  is  meant  the  degree  of  fatness  of  a  lamb. 
The  reasons  why  a  lamb  should  be  fat  are:  (a)  Other  things 
being  equal,  there  will  not  be  as  high  a  percentage  of  offal  as  in 
the  half  fat,  or  the  thin  lamb;  (b)  the  fat  adds  to  the  attractive- 
ness of  the  carcass,  and  thus  makes  it  more  inviting  to  the  pur- 
chaser; (c)  the  comparatively  fat  carcass  loses  less  in  weight  in 
the  process  of  "cooling  out"  in  the  refrigerator  and  also  in  cook- 
ing; (d)  some  fat  on  the  outside  of  the  lean  meat  and  a  consider- 
able amount  deposited  through  it  adds  to  its  palatability  by  making 
it  more  juicy  and  of  better  flavor. 

Desirable  quality  of  flesh  is  indicated  by  firmness  along  the 
back,  at  the  loins,  over  the  sides  and  at  the  leg  of  mutton.  "Hard 
as  a  board"  is  a  favorite  phrase  with  many  sheepmen  to  describe  a 
back  having  desirable  quality  of  flesh,  but  with  this  single  idea  in 
mind  bareness  or  lack  of  flesh  might  be  mistaken  for  firmness  of 
flesh.  While  the  flesh  should  have  that  firmness  which  would  im- 
press an  inexperienced  man  as  being  hard,  it  should  have  just 
enough  springiness  to  yield  slightly  to  the  touch. 

It  is  rarely  that  lambs  are  made  too  fat  for  the  prime  grade 
but  very  often  they  fail  to  grade  as  prime  because  they  are  not  fat 
enough.  Because  lambs  are  finished  for  market  before  they  have 
ceased  growing,  they  do  not  have  the  tendency  to  lay  on  fat  in 
large,  soft  bunches  at  the  rump  and  in  rolls  at  the  girth,  and  hence 
it  is  difficult  to  carry  them  to  the  point  of  excessive  fatness.  The 
development  of  fat  essential  to  the  prime  lamb  is  indicated  by  a 
thick  dock,  a  full,  mellow  purse,  thickness  and  smoothness  on  the 
back  and  over  the  ribs,  fullness  at  the  neck  and  flanks,  and  a  plump, 
well  filled  breast. 

It  is  impossible  to  tell  with  exactness,  by  merely  looking  at  it, 
the  condition  of  a  lamb  in  the  wool  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to 
judge  condition  by  placing  the  hands  on  the  animal.  Experts  rely 
upon  placing  the  hand  but  once,  for  example,  by  spreading  the  hand 
so  that  the  back  and  ribs  will  be  touched  by  one  stroke,  or  by  grasp- 
ing the  loin,  or  by  getting  the  thickness  and  fullness  of  the  dock, 
but  none  risk  their  judgment  upon  sight  alone.  A  great  deal  is 


584 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


determined  by  the  stroke  that  touches  the  back  and  ribs  because 
it  not  only  reveals  the  condition  as  evidenced  by  the  degree  of 
smoothness  present,  but  also  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  flesh 
by  the  thickness  and  firmness  of  it.  This  stroke  also  aids  in  de- 
termining the  kind  of  pelt  a  lamb  may  have  with  respect  to  thick- 
ness of  skin,  density  of  wool  and  foreign  material  in  it. 


PLATE  i. — A  PRIME  LAMB. 


WEIGHT. — Weight  is  a  factor  that  varies  somewhat  with  the 
different  seasons  in  the  year,  but  in  general,  the  lamb  of  prime 
quality  and  condition  and  weighing  80  pounds  sells  at  the  highest 
price.  When  spring  lambs  first  appear  on  the  market  they  weigh 
little  more  than  60  pounds,  but  if  they  have  the  quality  and  finish 
they  easily  command  top  prices.  During  the  summer  months  con- 
sumers of  mutton  desire  small  cuts  because  they  do  not  eat  large 
quantities  of  meat  in  warm  weather,  and  this  gives  rise  to  a  strong 
demand  for  lambs  ranging  in  weight  from  65  to  70  pounds.  There 
never  is  a  time,  however,  when  lambs  weighing  80  pounds  will  not 
sell  as  prime  provided  they  are  prime  in  form,  quality,  and  condi- 
tion. Occasionally  native  lambs  showing  the  best  form,  quality, 
and  condition  will  sell  as  prime  lambs,  even  though  they  reach  100 
pounds  in  weight.  Such  cases  are  exceptional,  and  no  one  could 
expect  to  market  lambs  of  this  weight  regularly  and  always  have 
them  grade  as  prime.  However,  a  departure  of  a  few  pounds 
from  the  weight  that  is  most  popular  does  not  detract  as  much 
from  the  price  received  as  does  an  equal  departure  from  the  most 


I9o8.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


585 


w 

I 


586  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

desirable  quality  and  condition.  Quality  and  condition  are  of  di- 
rect interest  to  the  packer  in  that  they  influence  the  percentage  of 
marketable  meat  secured,  but  weight  is  a  factor  regulated  almost 
entirely  by  the  consumer.  It  is  claimed  that  in  the  combination 
of  tenderness,  juciness  and  flavor,  the  flesh  from  the  lighter  lamb 
is  not  superior  to  that  of  the  heavier  lamb.  But  in  making  selec- 
tions from  the  lighter  carcass  the  average  consumer  feels  more 
fully  assured  he  is  getting  lamb  and  not  mutton,  and  the  size  of 
the  cuts  from  the  smaller  carcass  is  more  convenient  for  his  use. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  above  discussion  about  the  form, 
quality,  and  condition  of  the  prime  lamb  is  in  the  main  true  of 
any  sub-class  of  mutton  sheep.  Any  animal  that  is  markedly  de- 
ficient in  either  form,  quality,  or  condition  will  not  meet  the  de- 
mands of  the  dealer  in  high-class  mutton,  and  hence,  cannot  grade 
as  prime.  See  Plates  I  and  2. 

CHOICE  LAMBS 

This  is  the  grade  that  includes  by  far  the  greater  number  of 
the  better  offerings  upon  the  Chicago  market.  To  grade  as  choice, 
lambs  cannot  fall  below  the  requirements  for  prime  lambs  to  any 
marked  degree.  They  must  have  the  form,  quality,  and  condition 
that  make  them  desirable  as  mutton  of  a  high  class.  They  usually 
fail  to  sell  as  prime  lambs  because  they  are  not  quite  up  to  the 
standard  in  quality,  condition,  or  weight.  While  lambs  frequently 
fail  to  grade  higher  than  choice  because  of  their  quality  or  their 
weight,  a  lack  in  condition  is  most  often  the  retarding  factor.  This 
may  be  traceable  to  one  or  more  of  the  following  causes.  A  long 
shipment  from  the  range  may  cause  deterioration  in  condition  to 
such  an  extent  that  lambs,  considered  strictly  prime  before  ship- 
ment, do  not  grade  better  than  choice.  Men  who  are  keeping  lambs 
as  a  feeding  proposition  are  often  influenced  to  market  them  short 
of  prime  finish  because  of  unfavorable  conditions,  as  shortage  of 
feed,  the  high  prices  ruling  for  feeds,  or  inadequate  shelter  in  sea- 
sons of  unusual  rainfall.  Men  who  handle  only  a  few  sheep,  and 
men  who  have  newly  taken  up  the  practice  of  feeding  are  often 
unable  to  judge  condition,  and  as  a  result,  market  their  offerings 
underfinished.  And,  finally,  men  may  know  that  their  lambs  are 
not  in  the  most  desirable  condition  yet  they  may  feel  that  the  prob- 
ability of  a  decline  in  market  prices  for  lambs  is  too  great  to  war- 
rant holding  them  until  they  are  finished.  See  plates  3,  4  and  5. 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


587 


588 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


1908.} 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


589 


590 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


GOOD  LAMBS 


[November, 


Upon  the  market,  buyers  and  salesmen  often  prefer  to  speak  of 
a  band  of  lambs  as  being  "good  to  choice"  rather  than  using  either 
of  the  terms  separately  to  describe  them.  This  doubtless  is  partly 
due  to  the  unevenness  in  bands  of  lambs,  which  suggests  two 
grades  rather  than  one.  If  there  is  a  pronounced  unevenness  in  an 
offering,  that  alone  is  sufficient  to  prevent  them  grading  better  than 
good.  But  the  individual  lamb  must  be  noticeably  deficient  in 
form,  quality,  condition  or  weight,  or  slightly  deficient  in  each,  thus 
making  a  lower  grade  through  a  combination  of  deficiencies.  In 
discussing  the  choice  grade  it  was  pointed  out  that  condition  is  the 
factor  in  which  most  lambs  in  that  grade  fall  short  of  prime,  but 
in  the  grade  under  consideration  a  lack  of  quality  is  almost  as  fre- 
quently apparent  as  lack  of  condition.  No  matter  how  much  fat 
they  may  have,  lambs  having  heavy  pelts,  as  evidenced  by  folds  or 
wrinkles  over  the  body,  rarely  grade  higher  than  good.  Very 
coarse  native  lambs,  especially  ram  lambs,  may  be  in  choice  con- 
dition but  out  of  consideration  in  that  grade  through  lack  of  qual- 
ity. See  plate  6. 


PLATE  6. — GOOD  LAMBS.    NOTE  THE  FAULTY  FORM  AND  ESPECIALLY  THE  UN- 
DERFINISHED  CONDITION. 

MEDIUM  LAMBS 

Lambs  of  this  grade  do  not  have,  by  a  great  deal,  the  condi- 
tion and  quality  necessary  in  the  prime  lamb.  It  is  in  this  grade 
more  than  any  discussed  above  that  faulty  form  is  apparent.  Long, 
loosely  coupled  bodies,  with  little  spring  of  rib,  and  rough  outlines 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


591 


o 

hH 

3 
i 

o 
U 


6 


592 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


are  frequently  seen.  Because  they  are  coarse,  underfinished,  and 
often  paunchy,  they  do  not  dress  a  -high  percentage,  and  what  they 
do  produce  is  without  sufficient  fat  to  meet  favor  with  dealers  who 
handle  high  class  mutton.  Only  the  coarser,  heavier  pelted  west- 
ern lambs  are  found  in  this  grade,  as  the  smoother,  tidier  range 
lambs  in  underfinished  condition  are  sold  to  go  to  the  country  as 
feeders.  Many  native  lambs,  however,  come  in  this  grade,  because 
those  appearing  •  on  the  market  in  low  condition  or  those  on  the 
coarse  "bucky"  order  are  not  sought  as  feeders.  See  plates  7  and  8. 


PLATE  8. — MEDIUM  WESTERN  LAMBS.     LEGGY  AND  HEAVY  IN  PELT  AS  EVI- 
DENCED BY  FOLDS  AND  WRINKLES  ON  THEIR  NECKS  AND  BODIES. 


COMMON  OR  CULL,  LAMBS 

Lambs  are  in  this  grade  chiefly  because  they  are  very  far  below 
that  condition  of  flesh  that  would  make  them  desirable  for  mutton. 
Coarse,  ill-shaped  lambs  commonly  belong  to  this  grade,  but  not 
unless  they  are  noticeably  lacking  in  quality  of  flesh  and  amount  of 
fat.  Offerings  in  this  grade  are  very  light  in  weight,  the  range, 
with  the  one  exception,  as  noted  below,  being  from  30  to  50 
pounds.  Occasionally  very  young  native  lambs  reach  the  market 
that  have  enough  quality  and  condition  to  place  them  in  a  higher 
grade,  but  because  of  their  very  light  weight  and  tender  age  they 
must  sell  as  common  lambs.  As  stated  previously,  practically  all 
native  lambs  appearing  on  the  market  go  to  slaughter,  while  the 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


593 


PLATE  9. — COMMON  OR   CULL  LAMBS.     NOTE  THE  UNTHRIFTY  APPEARANCE 

AND  LACK  OF  SIZE. 

thinner  western  lambs  are  sent  to  the  country  as  feeders,  hence  na- 
tives form  the  bulk  of  common  or  cull  lambs.  Under  present  meth- 
ods of  sheep  husbandry,  it  is  impossible  to  send  all  native  lambs  to 
market  in  desirable  condition  because  growers  of  natives  have  not 
yet  learned  how  to  keep  them  free  from  infestation  by  internal  par- 
asites, and  when  they  are  infested  to  any  great  extent,  they  do  not 
take  on  fat. 

In  both  the  common  and  medium  grades  are  frequently  seen 
what  are  known  as  coarse,  "bucky,"  native  lambs.  These  are  the 
result  of  careless  shepherding  on  the  part  of  growers.  If  lambs 
are  left  entire  they  rapidly  become  coarse  when  their  sex  instinct 
develops,  and  because  of  this  coarseness  and  the  loss  of  fat  result- 
ing from  a  great  amount  of  fretful  activity,  they  are  undesirable 
as  mutton.  While  it  is  not  the  purpose  to  discuss  any  question  of 
shepherding  in  this  connection,  it  may  be  said  in  passing  that  grow- 
ers of  natives  would  save  much  to  themselves  annually  if  they 
would  make  it  a  practice  to  castrate  their  ram  lambs  a  few  days 
after  they  are  born.  These  coarse,  "bucky"  lambs  are  heavier  than 
the  bulk  of  common  lambs,  as  they  sometimes  weigh  as  much  as 
i  oo  pounds. 

The  term,  "cull,"  is  common  parlance  in  sheep  market  circles, 
but  it  has  a  double  meaning.  One  applies  to  the  lowest  grade  un- 
der a  given  class,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  the  writer  uses  the 


594  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

term;  the  other,  to  the  number  a  buyer  may  have  the  privilege  to 
reject  when  purchasing1  a  band  of  lambs  or  sheep  at  a  given  price. 
Therefore,  in  defining  the  lowest  grade  of  lambs,  the  term  "com- 
mon," is  less  confusing  than  the  term,  "cull."  See  plate  9. 

YEARLINGS 

Yearlings  are  used  as  a  substitute  for  lambs  in  the  meat  trade. 
The  ability  of  the  animal  to  substitute  in  this  way  depends  upon 
its  weight,  quality,  condition,  and  immaturity.  An  index  greatly 
depended  upon  for  identifying  the  carcass  of  a  young  sheep,  or 
lamb,  is  what  is  known  as  the  "break  joint,"  which  is  found  im- 
mediately above  the  pastern  joint.  The  leg  easily  severs  at  the 
"break  joint,"  leaving  a  reddish,  porous,  indented  surface  over 
which  there  is  a  slight,  viscid  like  secretion  easily  noticeable  to  the 
touch.  The  presence  of  this  joint  in  the  live  animal  is  best  de- 
termined by  feeling  just  above  the  pastern  joint  for  a  bony-like 
prominence,  which  is  a  true  indication  of  it.  It  disappears  when 
the  sheep  becomes  mature,  and  a  sheep  that  does  not  have  it  cannot 
class  as  a  yearling.  The  yearling  class  is  composed  exclusively  of 
wethers  because  the  "break  joint"  disappears  in  ewes  at  about  the 
time  they  pass  out  of  the  lamb  class.  Lambs  born  the  year  previ- 
ous to  the  time  they  appear  on  the  market  pass  out  of  the  lamb 
class  about  July  first,  and  from  that  time  the  wethers  are  called 
yearlings  until  they  are  too  far  toward  maturity  to  "break"  as  the 
salesmen  and  buyers  familiarly  refer  to  the  "break  joint." 

Yearlings  are  commonly  designated  upon  the  market  as 
"lights"  and  "heavies."  These  terms,  as  they  would  indicate,  refer 
to  weights.  Thus  we  frequently  hear  the  phrases  "prime  lights" 
and  "prime  heavies,"  by  which  is  meant  the  quality  and  condition 
of  animals  coming  within  certain  limits  of  weight  rather  than  their 
desirability  as  mutton.  And  hence,  it  is  felt-  that  "lights"  and 
"heavies"  are  not  strictly  logical  terms  upon  which  to  base  grada- 
tions in  this  class. 

Since  yearlings  are  used  to  take  the  place  of  lambs,  the  nearer 
they  approach  the  quality,  condition,  and  weight  of  prime  lambs, 
the  more  satisfactorily  will  they  accomplish  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended.  Any  great  departure  in  any  of  the  above  char- 
acteristics as  applied  to  prime  lambs  will  seriously  affect  the  de- 
sirability of  yearlings  and  if  they  are  low  in  condition  they  are 
practically  out  of  consideration  as  such.  Therefore,  the  basis  upon 
which  yearlings  are  given  a  place,  surrounds  them  with  so  many 
requirements  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  be  included  under 
many  different  grades. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


595 


596  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

In  marketing  sheep,  the  tendency  to  market  young  animals 
is  becoming  more  and  more  prevalent,  and  some  interest  attaches 
to  the  effect  of  this  tendency  upon  the  number  of  yearlings  coming 
to  market  now  in  comparison  with  past  years.  So  far  as  we  are 
able  to  judge,  there  is  proportionately  no  abatement  in  the  number 
and  many  believe  it  has  increased.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  there 
are  a  number  of  lambs  each  year  that  for  one  or  several  reasons 
should  not  be  marketed  as  lambs  and  hence  a  logical  place  is  made 
for  yearlings. 

The  grades  are:     PRIME,  CHOICE,  GOOD. 

PRIME  YEARLINGS 

Yearlings,  to  grade  as  prime,  must  be  highly  developed  in  form, 
quality,  and  condition,  and  of  a  light,  handy  weight,  which  ranges 
from  70  to  90  pounds.  The  form  of  the  prime  yearling  embodies 
symmetry,  compactness,  roundness,  and  smoothness  with  no  sug- 
gestion of  uneven  lines  or  prominent  parts.  Unless  such  a  form  is 
secured,  the  carcass  will  appear  too  great  in  size  to  look  like  a 
lamb.  In  general  quality  the  requirements  are  fine,  clean  cut 
features,  and  a  pelt  of  light  weight.  As  with  prime  lambs,  so  with 
yearlings,  a  high  dressed  percentage  is  demanded,  and  this  is  not 
possible  with  the  animal  having  very  coarse  features  and  a  heavy 
pelt. 

The  most  important  considerations  in  placing  a  yearling  in  the 
prime  grade  are  quality  of  flesh  and  the  amount  of  fat  it  carries. 
Slight  concessions  may  be  made  to  a  lack  in  general  quality  and 
form,  but  none  to  a  lack  in  fat.  Unless  fat,  the  yearling  is  un- 
satisfactory, hence  buyers  discriminate  sharply  against  those  not 
showing  a  high  finish.  See  plate  10. 

CHOICE  YEARLINGS 

Since  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  most  desirable  form,  quality, 
condition,  and  weight  combined  in  one  animal,  choice  yearlings  out- 
number those  of  the  prime  grade.  Any  noticeable  departure  from 
what  is  considered  prime  in  any  of  the  above  characteristics  is  suf- 
ficient to  place  a  yearling  in  the  choice  grade.  During  the  winter 
season  when  the  offerings  of  sheep  are  almost  wholly  grain  fat- 
tened the  greater  number  of  yearlings  are  in  prime  condition,  but 
at  all  times  there  are  offerings  that  are  not  of  the  most  desirable 
form,  quality,  and  weight.  Heavy  weight  yearlings  are  most  in 
evidence  during  the  winter  season  and  at  the  period  when  yearlings 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


597 


PLATE  n. — CHOICE  YEARLINGS. 

pass  into  the  wether  class.  Those  of  more  than  90  pounds  weight, 
although  they  may  be  in  prime  condition,  rarely  grade  better  than 
choice.  If  yearlings  are  graded  as  choice  because  of  their  lack  in 
quality  it  is  usually  on  account  of  their  heavy  pelts  rather  than 
coarseness  of  features,  or  a  combination  of  the  two  where  the  de- 
ficiency in  each  is  rather  slight.  There  cannot  be  a  great  difference 
between  the  condition  of  prime  and  choice  yearlings  and,  in  fact, 
the  total  difference  between  them  is  not  great.  See  plate  n. 

GOOD  YEARLINGS 

With  a  few  scattered  exceptions  this  is  the  lowest  grade  of 
yearlings  offered  as  mutton.  Undesirable  quality,  weight,  or  con- 
dition or  a  combination  of  deficiencies  in  any  two  or  all  three  of 
the  above  will,  if  readily  apparent,  place  a  yearling  in  the  good 
grade.  Yearlings  of  1 10  pounds  and  upwards  rarely  grade  better 
than  good,  even  though  they  be  prime  in  every  other  respect.  Ill 
form,  general  coarseness,  and  undue  weight  of  pelt  are  all  serious 
objections  and  those  having  such  defects  are  nearly  always  placed 
in  this  grade.  A  rather  frequent  combination,  placing  yearlings  in 
the  good  grade,  is  underfinished  condition  and  undesirable  quality. 
If  yearlings  are  assigned  to  this  grade  solely  because  of  a  want  of 
fat,  they  are  almost  on  the  border  line  between  the  mutton  and  the 
feeder  class  and  are  not  much  wanted  by  either  packers  or  feeder 
buyers.  See  plate  12. 


598 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


PLATE  12. — GOOD  YEARLINGS.    NOTE  THE  HEAVY  PELTS  AND  THE  DEFICIENCY 

IN   CONDITION. 

Occasionally  either  pronounced  coarseness,  or  underfinished 
condition  combined  with  heavy  weight  place  yearlings  in  a  grade 
still  lower  than  good,  but  offerings  of  this  description  do  not  really 
play  the  role  of  yearlings  but  of  wethers,  and  they  usually  se*ll  on 
a  par  with  wethers. 

WETHERS 

This  sub-class  is  composed  of  mature  castrated  males.  Since 
comparatively  few  native  wethers  appear  upon  the  market,  this 
class  is  looked  upon  as  chiefly  a  western  product.  It  is  claimed 
that  there  are  fewer  wethers  reaching  the  markets  each  year,  and 
if  the  demand  for  dressed  lamb  continues  to  grow  at  its  present 
pace,  and  if  transportation  lines  are  extended  through  all  range 
districts  as  present  indications  would  lead  us  to  suppose  they  will 
be,  it  is  felt  that  the  proportionate  number  of  wethers  will  continue 
to  decrease.  Just  now  the  rangeman  has  place  for  wethers  if  his 
location  is  such  that  the  shipment  of  animals  is  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive; if  he  has  very  cheap  grazing  lands,  and  can  produce  his 
animals  at  very  low  cost;  or  if  he  has  too  few  breeding  sheep  to 
run  his  ranch  at  its  full  capacity.  When  high  prices  are  ruling  for 
both  mutton  and  wool,  wethers  will  more  than  pay  their  way  on 
almost  any  range,  but  when  the  profit  they  yield  is  compared  with 
that  from  breeding  ewes  rangemen  immediately  see  that  the  latter 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEF.P. 


599 


PLATE  13. — A  PRIME  NATIVE  WETHER  IN  THE  FLEECE. 


PLATE  14. — THE  SAME  SHEEP  AS  IN  PLATE  13  OUT  OF  THE  FLEECE. 


600  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

are  more  profitable,  hence  wethers  are  being  discarded  by  the  more 
progressive  sheepmen. 

As  a  mutton  product,  wethers  are  desired  in  hotel,  restaurant, 
dining  car,  and  steamship  trade,  or  in  any  place  where  the  com- 
paratively heavier  cuts  may  be  used  to  advantage. 

The  following  grades  include  the  offerings  appearing  on  the 
markets:  PRIME,  CHOICE,  GOOD,  COMMON. 

PRIME  WETHERS 

The  same  conformation,  quality,  and  condition  are  demanded 
in  prime  wethers  that  have  already  been  noted  as  characteristic  of 
prime  yearlings.  The  most  desirable  weights  range  from  95  to 
no  pounds,  and  are  popularly  known  as  light,  handy  weights. 
However,  wethers  weighing  140  pounds  and  upwards  frequently 
grade  as  prime  if  their  heavy  weight  is  accompanied  by  desirable 
conformation,  quality  and  condition.  These  prime  heavy  wethers 
are  selected  for  export  and  for  a  limited  demand  in  a  few  large 
cities,  notably  Chicago,  New  York  and  Boston.  See  plates  13, 
14  and  15. 

CHOICE  WETHERS 

Choice  wethers  must  possess  quality  and  condition  to  a  marked 
degree.  Quality  in  this  instance  applies  more  particularly  to  light- 
ness of  pelt  and  to  freedom  from  paunchiness  than  to  coarseness 
of.  features.  Wethers  of  this  grade  must  also  come  under  the 
light,  handy  or  the  heavy  weights.  Cho'ce  wethers  are  used  in 
the  same  way  as  prime  wethers,  and  both  are  sought  bv  dealers 
in  high  class  mutton.  The  choice  wether  is  usually  slightly  short 
of  prime  in  form,  quality  and  condition.  See  plate  16. 

GOOD  WETHERS 

Good  wethers  are  characterized  by  coarseness  and  lack  of  prime 
condition.  They  do  not  command  the  highest  prices  because  they 
do  not  dress  a  high  percentage  of  marketable  meat,  nor  yield  a 
quality  of  mutton  satisfactory  to  a  high  class  trade.  If  wethers 
are  pronounced  in  their  weight  of  pelt,  but  covered  with  thick  fat, 
they  will  come  in  this  grade  unless  of  undesirable  weight.  Fre- 
quently wethers  of  choice  condition  and  quality,  and  weighing  120 
to  135  pounds,  are  placed  in  the  good  grade  because  their  weight 
is  not  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  desired.  They 
are  foo  heavy  for  light,  handy  purposes,  and  too  light  for  heavy 
carcass  purposes.  See  plate  17. 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


601 


602 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


o 
B 
U 


PH 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


603 


PLATE  17. — GOOD  WETHERS. 

COMMON  WETHERS 

This  grade  is  made  up  of  wethers  of  inferior  quality  and  in 
perceptibly  underfinished  condition.  But  for  their  undesirable 
quality  they  would  sell  as  feeders.  They  help  to  supply  a  cheap 
city  trade.  See  plate  18. 


PLATE  18. — COMMON  WETHERS. 


604  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

EWES 

This  sub-class  is  composed  of  yearling  ewes,  surplus  breeding 
ewes,  and  those  no  longer  useful  for  breeding  purposes.  As  these 
different  sources  indicate,  there  are  wide  differences  in  the  age, 
condition,  and  weight  of  the  various  offerings  of  ewes  appearing 
on  the  market. 

Ewes  do  not  sell  on  a  par  with  wethers  because  they  have,  pro- 
portionately, a  greater  percentage  of  offal  and  a  smaller  amount  of 
lean  meat.  Except  in  times  of  urgent  demand  for  mutton,  prime 
wethers  sell  for  at  least  fifty  cents  per  hundred-weight  more  than 
prime  ewes.  However,  when  the  demand  for  mature  mutton  is 
strong  the  difference  is  often  no  more  than  twenty-five  cents.  The 
higher  grades  of  ewes  are  used  by  dealers  in  high-class  mutton  for 
hotel  and  restaurant  trade,  but  they,  of  course,  are  not  as  desirable 
as  the  better  grades  of  wethers.  They  function  somewhat  as  a 
supplement  to  wethers.  The  lower  grades  are  used  in  cheap  city 
trade  and  in  districts  such  as  mining  camps,  where  there  is  a  call 
for  cheap  mutton. 

Ewes  are  graded  as  follows :  PRIME,  CHOICE,  GOOD,  MEDIUM, 
COMMON  or  CULLS. 

PRIME  EWES 

Smooth,  highly  finished  native  and  western  yearling  ewes,  and 
a  very  small  number  of  well-bred,  aged  native  ewes  of  prime  qual- 
ity and  in  prime  condition,  comprise  the  offerings  in  this  grade. 
Since  the  bulk  of  yearling  ewes  are  sold  for  breeding  purposes  the 
total  offerings  of  prime  ewes  are  small.  Prime  yearling  ewes  may 
be  not  entirely  above  criticism  in  quality  and  condition,  but  be- 
cause they  are  light  in  weight,  they  meet  with  ready  sale.  The 
strongest  demand  is  for  weights  not  greater  than  100  oounds. 
However,  large,  smooth,  aged  ewes  in  prime  condition  sell  as 
prime  ewes.  The  supply  of  such  ewes  is  meager  and  they  go  to  a 
trade  that  could  not  handle  many  of  them.  See  plate  19. 

CHOICE  EWES 

Ewes  of  this  grade  must  show  development  to  a  high  degree 
in  form,  quality  and  condition,  as  they  are  placed  to  the  same  use 
as  prime  ewes.  They  may  be  slightly  faulty  in  quality,  condition 
or  weight,  but  they  are  usually  criticised  for  their  lack  either  of 
quality  or  condition.  Grain-fattened  western  ewes  frequently  sell 
as  choice.  See  plate  20. 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


605 


w 

I 


PU 


606  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 


PLATE  20. — CHOICE  EWES. 

GOOD  EWES 

Good  ewes  are  appreciably  open  to  criticism  in  condition  and 
often  in  quality.  In  most  seasons  of  the  year,  ewes,  choice  in  con- 
dition and  quality  but  of  the  unhandy  weights,  ranging-  from  115 
to  130  pounds,  are  also  placed  in  this  grade.  See  plate  21. 

MEDIUM  EWES 

Underfmished  condition  and  advanced  age  are  usually  evident 
in  this  grade.  Often  ewes  and  their  lambs  are  sent  to  market  to- 
gether. Ewes  in  such  shipments  are  frequently  too  low  in  condi- 
tion to  be  above  the  medium  grade.  The. mutton  from  this  grade 
goes  to  supply  a  cheap  trade.  See  plate  22. 

COMMON  OR  GULL,  EWES 

Offerings  of  this  grade  are  pronounced  in  their  lack  of  condi- 
tion. Toothless  old  ewes,  too  decrepit  to  make  use  of  feed  and 
thus  regain  desirable  condition,  are  slaughtered  for  the  cheapest 
class  of  trade.  As  the  winter  season  advances  a  number  of  ewes 
appear  on  the  market  well  advanced  in  pregnancy.  Such  ewes,  al- 
though they  may  be  of  choice  quality  and  condition,  sell  as  com- 
mon ewes  because  of  their  high  percentage  of  waste  and  the  ill 
effects  pregnancy  is  said  to  have  upon  the  color  of  the  carcass. 
General  quality  cuts  little  figure  in  this  grade,  as  the  generat  un- 
desirability  passes  all  offerings  through  at  about  the  same  price. 
See  plate  23. 


1908.} 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


607 


PLATE  21. — GOOD  EWES. 


PLATE  22. — MEDIUM  EWES. 

BUCKS  AND  STAGS 

On  the  market  rams  are  designated  as  bucks.  Stags  are  males 
castrated  later  than  the  lamb  stage  of  life  and  they  sell  on  a  par 
with  bucks.  Strictly  speaking,  bucks  are  not  graded  although  the 
terms  choice,  good,  and  common  are  frequently  used.  Quotations 


608 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


PLATE  23. — COMMON  OR  CULL  EWES. 


PLATE  24. — CHOICE  BUCKS. 

on  bucks  do  not  fluctuate  daily  as  do  the  quotations  on  the  other 
classes  of  mutton  sheep,  but  the  same  quotation  runs  through  a 
period  of  days.  This  practice  prevails  because  of  the  few  sheep 
offered  in  this  class. 

Buck  carcasses  do  not  go  to  any  special  branch  of  trade,  but 
they  are  distributed  in  with  heavy  wether  carcasses,   hence  the 


i9oS.}  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  609 

more  the  carcass  of  the  buck  resembles  that  of  the  wether,  the 
more  satisfactorily  will  it  serve  its  purpose.  The  smooth  buck  of 
tidy  form  with  a  light  neck,  high  quality,  and  thick,  firm  flesh,  sells 
best.  See  plate  24. 

FEEDER  SHEEP 

It  must  be  obvious  to  everyone  that  the  one  thing  which  de- 
termines whether  a  sheep  or  lamb  belongs  to  the  feeder  class,  is 
condition.  Whenever  sheep  are  too  low  in  condition  to  suit  the 
needs  of  the  packer  they  fall  into  the  feeder  class,  unless  they  be 
extremely  coarse  in  quality  or  weakened  in  vitality  because  of  dis- 
ease or  advanced  age. 

The  heavy  run  of  feeder  sheep  occurs  in  the  months  of  Sep- 
tember, October  and  November,  when  rangemen  are  reducing 
their  flocks  and  preparing  for  the  winter  months.  However  buy- 
ers are  constantly  looking  for  thrifty,  underfinished  stuff  and  a 
limited  number  of  feeder  sheep  go  out  from  the  markets  every 
week  in  the  year.  As  the  shearing  season  approaches  buyers  of 
feeders  from  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois  make  strong 
bids  for  well  wooled  lambs.  Such  lambs  usually  make  large  gains 
immediately  after  being  shorn,  and  thus  are  made  prime  in  con- 
dition in  a  short  period. 

Practically  all  the  sheep  sold  as  feeders  are  grown  on  the  west- 
ern ranges.  Occasionally  a  few  natives  are  taken  out  as  feeders 
but  so  rarely  and  in  such  small  numbers  that  they  cannot  be  listed 
as  belonging  to  the  feeder  class.  Experience  has  taught  sheep  feed- 
ers that  the  thin  natives  on  our  large  markets  are,  for  reasons  al- 
ready mentioned,  rarely  profitable  in  the  feed-lot. 

The  following  are  the  recognized  sub-classes  of  feeder  sheep: 
LAMBS,  YEARLINGS,  WETHERS,  EWES. 

FEEDER  LAMBS 

Feeder  lambs  are  those  thin  in  flesh  left  after  sorting  out  those 
in  a  band  in  suitable  condition  for  the  mutton  trade.  A  great  per- 
centage of  the  feeder  lambs  reaching  the  markets  fall  into  that  class 
because  of  certain  influences  under  which  they  have  been  placed. 
It  may  be  that  they  have  had  an  unequal  chance  with  those  in 
highest  condition  in  the  band  on  account  of  not  being  so  well  nour- 
ished by  their  dams;  they  may  have  been  born  too  late  to  reach 
that  degree  of  condition,  finish,  and  weight  demanded  by  the 
packer;  or,  they  may  have  been  held  too  long  at  the  shipping 
place  on  the  range  or  on  the  road  by  poor  train  service  without 
the  necessary  amount  of  feed,  so  that  the  deterioration  in  condition 
placed  what  would  have  been  mutton  lambs  in  the  feeder  class. 

The  grades  recognized  on  the  market  are:  FANCY  SELECTED, 
CHOICE,  GOOD,  MEDIUM,  COMMON  OR  INFERIOR. 


610  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 


PLATE  25. — FANCY  SELECTED  FEEDER  LAMBS. 

FANCY  SELECTED  FEEDER  LAMBS 

Not  many  of  this  grade  of  feeders  are  to  be  found  on  the  mar- 
kets. They  are  usually  the  result  of  long  delay  at  the  point  of 
shipment  or  in  transit.  Their  quality,  breeding,  and  age  would 
place  them  on  the  market  for  mutton  direct  from  the  range  but 
for  some  deteriorating  influence  that  has  reduced  them  in  condi- 
tion. Fancy  selected  feeders  must  not  only  possess  the  character- 
istics of  choice  feeders  as  noted  in  the  following  pages,  but  in 
addition  they  must  be  uniform  in  breeding  and  markings  and  show 
an  unusual  amount  of  mutton  blood  for  range  lambs.  Their  qual- 
ity, as  evidenced  by  clear  cut  features,  clean  limbs,  light  and 
smooth  pelts,  must  be  practically  above  criticism.  They  are  nearly 
always  slightly  higher  in  condition  and  heavier  than  the  average 
run  of  feeder  lambs,  ranging  in  weight  from  65  to  70  pounds,  and 
in  that  state  of  thrift  where  gains  can  be  placed  on  them  rapidly. 
If  properly  handled  they  are  the  grade  of  feeders  that  will  finish 
quickly  into  prime  lambs.  See  plate  25. 

CHOICE  FEEDER  LAMBS 

Choice  feeders  will  develop  into  choice  and  prime  mutton  lambs 
if  properly  managed.  Of  the  grades  that  come  to  the  notice  of 
buyers  generally,  they  are  probably  more  uniform  than  any  other, 
and  in  order  to  get  a  fixed  standard  from  which  to  make  compari- 
sons this  grade  is  described  in  detail. 

What  the  buyer  expects  of  choice  feeders  is  the  ability  to  fin- 
ish into  prime  or  choice  mutton  lambs,  and  to  produce  gains  at 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  611 

economical  figures.  The  selection  of  such  lambs  is  based  upon 
form,  quality,  constitution,  condition  and  weight. 

FORM. — In  general  the  form  should  be  deep,  broad,  well  knit, 
of  medium  length  and  low  set.  This  conformation  indicates  early 
maturity,  good  constitution,  capacity  for  growth,  and  a  likelihood 
of  finishing  into  an  attractive  carcass  with  a  relatively  high  per- 
centage of  valuable  cuts.  Very  leggy,  gaunt,  narrow,  loosely  made 
lambs  usually  fatten  slowly  and  lack  the  ability  to  make  economical 
gains  or  to  reach  choice  mutton  finish.  The  choice  feeder  should 
be  of  medium  length  rather  than  very  long  or  short.  Great  length 
is  usually  attended  with  general  ungainliness  and  a  tendency  to 
finish  slowly.  Since  lambs  of  this  conformation  are  usually  very 
long  in  the  coupling,  they,  when  at  their  best,  lack  the  compact- 
ness desired  in  the  choice  mutton  lamb.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
unusually  short  lamb,  as  a  rule,  behaves  on  feed  as  though  it  had 
been  stunted.  It  is  often  fastidious  in  its  feeding;  it  frequently 
presents  a  paunchy  appearance  and  has  the  misfortune  to  improve 
but  slightly  during  the  feeding  period.  It  has  been  said  that  choice 
feeders  should  be  low  set  but  only  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
strong,  western  lambs  have  what  we  would  term  "short  legs."  In 
making  selections  and  keeping  the  other  requisites  in  mind,  the  less 
legery  type  should  be  preferred. 

QUALITY. — Quality  is  a  very  important  consideration  in  the 
selection  of  feeder  lambs,  and  it  is  that  characteristic  which  is  man- 
ifested by  a  medium  sized,  fine,  clean  cut  head ;  •  medium  sized,  and 
moderately  thin  ears ;  the  hair  on  the  face  and  legs,  fine  and  silky ; 
bone  that  is  fine,  and  without  coarseness  at  the  joints;  skin,  thin 
and  without  folds  or  wrinkles.  A  smooth  skin  without  folds  or 
wrinkles  and  carrying  wool  of  moderate  weight  is  the  most  im- 
portant requirement  of  desirable  quality  in  feeder  lambs.  Lambs 
with  heavy  pelts  are  discriminated  against  because  they  do  not,  as 
a  rule,  gain  as  rapidly  as  lambs  with  smooth  skin?  and  they  never 
command  top  prices  when  returned  to  the  market  fat,  because,  as 
was  stated  in  the  early  pages  of  this  bulletin,  the  excessive  weight 
of  pelt  materially  reduces  the  percentage  of  the  dressed  weight. 

CONSTITUTION. — The  conformation  which  indicates  a  strong 
constitution  was  described  above  under  form.  A  wide,  deep  chest, 
fullness  in  the  heart-girth,  depth  and  breadth  of  body  indicate  suf- 
ficient space  for  well  developed  vital  organs,  or  strong  constitution. 
Another  important  point,  which  if  not  a  part  of  constitution  is 
closely  akin  to  it,  is  thrift.  The  intelligent  buyer  of  choice  feeders 
rejects  all  lambs  that  appear  in  the  least  unthrifty,  such  as  lame 
ones  and  those  inclined  to  lag  behind  when  the  band  is  moving. 


612 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


CONDITION. — While  it  is  understood  that  no  grade  of  feeder 
lambs  is  in  that  condition  we  would  call  fat,  choice  lambs  should 
be  fairly  full  in  their  outlines  and  without  any  suggestion  of  emaci- 
ation. Such  condition  is  of  importance  for  two  reasons.  First, 
the  exceedingly  thin  lamb  usually  does  not  finish  in  a  normal  feed- 
ing period  and  second,  a  lamb  of  this  description  often  fails  to 
make  gains  as  economically  as  those  in  higher  condition. 

WEIGHT. — The  question  of  weight  should  receive  considera- 
tion. Choice  feeder  lambs  range  in  weight  from  55  to  62  pounds. 
Lambs  weighing  less  than  this  are  regarded  as  being  either  too 
young  or  too  much  retarded  in  growth  to  orade  as  choice.  It  is 
expected  of  choice  lambs  that  they  finish  into  the  weights  most 
desirable  in  a  normal  feeding  period,  which  is  from  90  to  120  days, 
and  hence  the  initial  weight  should  not  be  much  less  than  55  pounds. 
See  plate  26. 


PLATE  26. — CHOICE  FEEDER  LAMBS. 


GOOD  FEEDER  LAMBS 

Several  things  may  contribute  to  make  lambs  fall  into  the  good 
grade,  such  as  undesirable  condition,  weight,  conformation  and 
quality.  Good  lambs  are  usually  more  leggy  and  coarse  than  those 
that  are  considered  choice.  They  often  make  as  good  and  occa- 
sionally better  gains  than  choice  lambs,  but  chiefly  on  account  of 
their  lack  in  quality  they  do  not  reach  top  prices  when  they  are 
returned  to  the  market  as  fat  lambs.  Lambs  weighing  between 
50  and  55  pounds  and  choice  in  form,  but  somewhat,  although  not 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


613 


excessively  heavy  in  pelt,  are  placed  in  the  good  grade.  They  al- 
ways meet  with  ready  demand  although  they  do  not  bring  top 
prices  during  the  heavy  run  of  feeder  lambs.  They  are  taken  by 
men  who  desire  to  keep  their  lambs  all  winter  and  shear  them  be- 
fore marketing.  When  relieved  of  their  heavy  fleeces  and  finished 
to  a  point  where  they  are  very  fat.  they  are  not  seriously  criticised 
for  their  lack  of  quality,  and  they  often  sell  as  choice  fat  lambs.  A 
few  weeks  before  shearing  time  when  feeder  buyers  are  taking  un- 
finished lambs  to  shear  and  to  feed  for  a  short  period,  this  type 
outsells  any  other.  See  plate  27. 


PLATE- 27. — GOOD  FEEDER  LAMBS.     LEGGY,  COARSE,  AND  TOO  THIN  TO  BE  THE 
MOST  DESIRABLE  FEEDERS. 


MEDIUM  FEEDER  LAMBS 

Lambs  of  this  grade  often  have  very  heavy  pelts  and  hence  lack 
appreciably  in  quality.  Pronounced  legginess  and  angularity  of 
form  are  frequently  noticeable  in  bands  of  lambs  grading  as  medium 
but  the  chief  discrimination  is  against  their  quality  because  of  their 
thick  wrinkled  skins,  and  dense  heavy  fleeces.  While  in  most  cases 
they  are  thrifty  they  are  usually  below  the  weight  most  desirable 
in  feeder  lambs  and  this  together  with  their  lack  of  quality  and 
desirable  form  places  them  considerably  below  the  choice  feeder. 
See  plate  28. 


614 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


PLATE  28. — MEDIUM  FEEDER  LAMBS.    NOTE  THE  VERY  HEAVY  PELTS. 


PLATE  29. — COMMON  FEEDER  LAMBS. 


1908.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  615 

COMMON  OR  INFERIOR  FEEDERS 

The  lambs  most  common  to  this  grade  are  little,  light,  late  born, 
weak  lambs.  They  are  known  under  several  appellations,  such  as 
"bums,"  "culls,"  "pewees"  and  "peanuts."  Their  weight  may  vary 
anywhere  from  25  to  45  pounds  and  because  of  their  tender  age, 
light  weight  and  weakened  condition  they  require  skillful  care  and 
a  long  period  of  feeding  upon  nutritious  feeds  that  will  produce  a 
large  amount  of  growth  as  well  as  fat.  Hence  the  demand  for 
these  lambs  is  limited  because  none  but  men  of  much  experience  in 
lamb  feeding  and  with  proper  equipment  and  feeds  can  successfully 
handle  them.  Lambs  of  the  above  description  are  not  discrim- 
inated against  because  of  their  quality,  but  entirely  because  of  their 
lack  in  size,  due  either  to  retarded  growth  or  late  birth,  or  perhaps 
both,  and  their  lack  of  thriftiness.  They  frequently  sell  as  prime 
lambs  after  being  carefully  fed  for  five  or  six  months.  The  ex- 
tremely coarse,  heavy  pelted  lambs  lacking  uniformity  both  in 
weight  and  conformation  are  also  placed  in  this  grade. 

The  little  lambs  that  form  the  bulk  of  the  common  grade  are 
said  to  appear  in  fewer  numbers  upon  the  markets  each  succeeding 
year,  due,  perhaps,  to  improved  management  of  the  range  flocks, 
and  a  realization  on  the  part  of  the  range  owners  that  it  does  not 
pay  to  place  them  upon  the  market  except  under  forced  circum- 
stances. It  would  seem,  then,  that  it  will  not  be  many  years  be- 
fore the  common  grade  of  feeders  will  be  confined  chiefly  to  very 
coarse,  thin  and  unthrifty  lambs.  See  plate  29. 

YEARLING  FEEDERS 

This  class  is  made  up  exclusively  from  yearling  wethers.  As 
previously  stated  mutton  yearlings  are  substituted  for  lamb  and  if 
they  fail  to  make  a  desirable  substitute  they  are  not  wanted,  hence 
quality  and  weight  are  of  great  importance  in  this  class.  In  re- 
cent years  the  number  of  yearling  feeders  appearing  on  the  markets 
has  been  so  few  that  many  orders  for  them  could  not  be  filled,  and 
they  do  not  figure  prominently  in  the  feeder  trade. 

The  offerings  of  yearling  feeders  are  graded  as  follows: 
CHOICE,  GOOD,  COMMON. 

CHOICE  YEARLING  FEEDERS 

To  grade  as  choice,  yearling  feeders  must  be  smooth  and  sym- 
metrical in  outline,  fairly  low  set  and  compact,  fine  in  quality  and 
light  in  weight.  They  should  weigh  70  pounds  or  less  as  the  most 


616 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


1908.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


617 


a 

* 


ft. 


O 


618 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


1908.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  619 

desirable  weight  for  grain-fattened  yearlings  is  from  85  to  90 
pounds.  Choice  yearlings  are  usually  in  better  condition  than 
choice  feeder  lambs  because  low  condition  in  yearlings  is  more 
objectionable  to  the.  packer  than  the  same  condition  in  lambs,  and 
thus  yearlings  higher  in  condition  than  choice  feeder  lambs  are 
placed  on  the  feeder  market.  It  is  one  of  the  objects  of  the  pur- 
chaser of  yearlings  to  make  a  profit  by  increasing  the  value  per 
pound  of  the  original  weight  through  the  process  of  finishing.  If 
.he  succeeds  in  making  the  spread  between  the  cost  and  the  selling 
price  per  pound  sufficiently  wide  he  is  not  so  much  concerned  about 
keeping  them  for  a  long  period  to  secure  a  large  increase  in  weight. 
See  plate  30. 

GOOD  YEARLING  FEEDERS 

As  in  the  lamb  feeder  class,  so  here,  unevenness  in  weight,  con- 
dition, conformation  or  quality  may  cause  yearlings  to  be  placed 
in  this  grade.  It  is  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  some  one  or  more  par- 
ticulars more  than  in  anything  else  that  causes  yearlings  to  grade  as 
good.  As  quality  is  greatly  emphasized  in  the  yearling  feeder  class 
anything  showing  coarseness  could  not  grade  as  choice  and  would 
have  to  fall  into  the  good  or  a  lower  grade.  See  plate  31. 

COMMON  YEARLING  FEEDERS 

Feeders  of  this  grade  are  deficient  in  quality  and  usually  heavy 
in  weight.  If  yearling  feeders  are  heavy  in  pelt,  coarse  in  bone 
and  weigh  80  to  85  pounds,  they  will  likely  sell  as  sheep  when  fin- 
ished and,  therefore,  the  feeder  buyer  cannot  afford  to  pay  as  much 
for  yearlings  of  -this  description  as  he  can  for  a  lighter,  smoother 
kind.  See  plate  32. 

FEEDER  WETHERS 

Of  the  wethers  sold  from  the  range  for  feeding  purposes  the 
greater  number  is  shipped  direct  to  western  feed  lots,  hence  the 
supply  on  the  Chicago  market  is  extremely  meager. 

The  grades  are  as  follows :    CHOICE,  GOOD,  MEDIUM,  COMMON. 

CHOICE  FEEDER  WETHERS 

To  be  considered  choice  feeders,  wethers  must  be  of  good  con- 
formation, highly  developed  in  quality  and  uniform  in  weight  and 
condition.  The  extremely  thin  wether  is  not  particularly  sought 
after  because  it  is  mainly  a  question  of  price  with  the  purchaser  of 
feeder  wethers  and  if  wethers  of  medium  condition  can  be  secured 


620  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

they  are  taken  more  readily  than  the  thinner  ones. 

The  choice  feeder  wether  should  be  of  a  light,  handy  weight, 
which  ranges  from  80  to  90  pounds.  See  plate  33. 

GOOD  FEEDER  WETHERS 

Good  wethers  should  be  uniform  in  weight  and  condition  and 
not  open  to  serious  criticism  in  conformation  and  quality.  As  in 
the  choice  grade,  the  extremely  thin  wether  is  not  sought  after. 
Wethers  of  this  grade  are  usually  inferior  to  those  of  the  choice 
grade  in  quality  or  condition.  See  plate  34. 

MEDIUM  FEEDER  WETHERS 

Wethers  of  this  grade  are  usually  criticized  for  their  lack  of 
quality  and  condition.  If  wethers  are  in  thin  condition  it  is  nec- 
essary to  carry  them  through  a  long*  feeding  period  and  for  this 
reason'  they  are  less  desirable  than  if  their  condition  were  such  that 
they  could  be  fattened  in  a  short  period.  More  improvement  may 
be  made  during  the  feeding  period  by  wethers  of  this  grade  than 
those  of  any  other  and  when  fat  they  not  infrequently  grade  as 
choice. 

Medium  feeder  wethers  are  likely  to  be  large  of  frame  and  al- 
though not  heavy  at  the  time  of  purchase  because  of  their  thin 
condition,  they  are  heavy  wethers  when  marketed  as  mutton.  See 
plate  35. 

COMMON  FEEDER  WETHERS 

Extremely  coarse  wethers  with  heavy  pelts,  stags,  the  result  of 
castrating  mature  rams,  and  very  old  wethers,  are  included  in  this 
grade.  The  offerings  in  common  feeder  wethers  are  small,  and 
what  few  there  are  do  not  sell  readily.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see 
wethers  of  this  grade  held  over  several  days  in  the  pens  before 
meeting  with  a  sale.  They  are  unpromising  from  the  feeder's 
standpoint  because  they  are  likely  to  make  gains  slowly  and  at 
high  cost  and  when  finished  their  lack  in  quality  places  them  con- 
siderably below  the  top  of  the  market.  See  plate  36. 


Library,  New  Mexico  State  College 

MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


621 


a 

I 


o 

w 

f 


S 

PL. 


622 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[Novenber, 


I90S.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


623 


624  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 


PLATE  36. — COMMON  FEEDER  WETHERS. 

FEEDER  EWES 

During  the  past  few  years  the  demand  for  breeding  ewes  has 
been  so  strong  that  the  greater  number  of  western  yearling  ewes 
too  low  in  condition  to  sell  as  mutton  have  been  shipped  out  of  the 
Chicago  market  as  breeding  ewes.  When  there  is  a  slow  demand 
for  breeding  ewes,  however,  the  yearling  ewe  lops  off  into  the 
feeder  class.  Of  the  mature  ewes  sold  as  feeders,  the  larger  num- 
ber are  those  that  have  spent  their  usefulness  as  breeders  on  the 
range.  They  vary  considerably  in  condition,  quality  and  general 
thrift,  and  all  feeder  ewes  may  be  graded  as  follows:  CHOICE, 
GOOD,  MEDIUM,  COMMON. 

CHOICE  FEEDER  EWES 

Most  of  the  yearling  ewes  offered  as  feeders  are  placed  in  this 
grade.  They  are  of  choice  quality  and  in  that  degree  of  condition 
at  which  gains  are  put  on  rapidly  and  early  give  a  degree  of  desir- 
able finish.  They  weigh  from  70  to  80  pounds  and  when  finished 
yield  a  neat,  handy-weight  carcass.  Smooth  aged  ewes  of  good  form 
and  in  medium  flesh  are  also  placed  in  this  grade.  See  plate  37. 

GOOD  FEEDER  EWES 

To  grade  as  good,  feeder  ewes  must  be  smooth  and  healthy, 
and  their  teeth  must  be  sound.  Owing  to  sharp  demand  in  the 
breeding  ewe  section  during  several  years  past  many  ewes  of  the 
above  description  have  gone  to  the  country  as  breeders,  provided 


I9o8.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


625 


they  were  good  in  fleece  and  sound  in  their  udders.  Good  feeding 
ewes  are  able  to  utilize  almost  any  sheep  feed  without  special  prep- 
aration, and  also  to  make  good  gains  during  the  feeding  period. 
See  plate  38. 


PLATE  37. — CHOICE  FEEDER  EWES.    THIS  PLATE  is  ALSO  REPRESENTATIVE  OF 
•     THE  BEST  TYPE  OF  WESTERN  EWES  SELECTED  FOR  BREEDING  PURPOSES. 


PLATE  38. — GOOD  FEEDER  EWES. 


626 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


PLATE  39. — MEDIUM  FEEDER  EWES. 


PLATE  40. — COMMON  FEEDER  EWES. 


iyo8.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  627 

MEDIUM  FEEDER  EWES 

Ewes  of  this  grade  may  be  lacking  either  in  quality  or  thrift. 
If  unthrifty,  they  are  usually  broken  mouthed  and  in  low  condition. 
Such  ewes  are  much  less,  desirable  than  those  belonging  to  the  good 
grade  because  they  are  more  difficult  to  start  on  feed  and  must  re- 
ceive more  careful  attention  both  in  preparing  the  feed  and  in  the 
method  of  feeding  during  the  fattening  period.  See  plate  39. 

COMMON  FEEDER  EWES 

Common  ewes  are  very  old  and  so  depleted  in  condition  that 
they  approach  emaciation.  As  a  rule  their  front  teeth  are  gone  or 
worn  so  low  that  they  are  of  little  use.  Only  the  best  of  care  and 
feed  will  secure  gains  on  ewes  of  this  gr  de,  hence  no  one  except 
the  most  skillful  feeders  having  an  abundance  of  choice  feed  can 
afford  to  handle  them.  Like  common-  wethers,  common  ewes  are 
few  in  number  on  the  market.  See  plate  40. 

BREEDING  SHEEP 

This  class  includes  both  native  and  western  ewes  in  about  equal 
proportions.  Breeding  bucks  are  exclusively  natives. 

The  ewes  most  sought  after  are  two,  three  and  four-year-old, 
dark  faced  natives  in  ordinary  field  condition.  Dark  faced  ewes 
sell  better  than  those  that  are  otherwise  their  equals,  because  their 
lambs,  being  dark  faced  sell  better  than  light  faced  lambs  on  the 
eastern  markets.  Western  ewes  are  very  popular  for  breeding  pur- 
poses in  certain  localities,  as  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  western  New 
York,  and  many  engaged  in  the  trade  think  they  should  be  pre- 
ferred over  natives  because  they  are  more  hardy  and  comparatively 
free  from  internal  parasites.  Many  of  the  ewes  offered  for  breed- 
ing purposes  are  yearlings,  but  they  are  not  as  desirable  as  two  or 
three-year-old  ewes  because  they  are  immature  and  likely  to  be  un- 
satisfactory as  mothers  at  their  first  lambing.  The  native  yearling 
is  heavier  and  more  nearly  mature  than  the  western  yearling  and 
she  meets  with  a  correspondingly  better  sale. 

The  offerings  on  the  market  come  under  the  following  grades : 
FANCY  SELECTED,  CHOICE,  GOOD,  COMMON. 

FANCY  SELECTED  BREEDING  EWES 

Only  a  very  few  of  the  breeding"  ewes  sold  out  of  the  market 
can  be  regarded  as  Fancy  Selected.  Occasionally  an  order  is  placed 
for  a  small  number  of  fancy  ewes.  These  are  secured  by  making 


628 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


PLATE  41. — FANCY  SELECTED  BREEDING  EWES.     Photo  by  courtesy  of  American 

Sheep  Breeder. 

individual  selections  from  different  shipments  of  native  ewes  com- 
ing to  the  market,  and  it  may  take  several  days  to  get  together  a 
shipment.  Such  ewes  are  high  grades  of  some  of  the  Down  breeds, 
usually  Shropshire,  and  in  addition  to  being  thrifty  and  sound,  they 
are  uniform  in  quality,  conformation,  fleece  and  style.  Ewes  of 
this  grade  are,  as  a  rule,  in  higher  condition  than  any  other  offer- 
ings of  breeding  ewes  because  consideration  for  the  requirements 
demanded  makes  it  necessary  to  disregard  high  condition  which 
most  purchasers  would  rather  secure  through  cheap  feeding.  See 
plate  41. 

CHOICE  BREEDING  EWES 

Since  the  greater  number  of  the  more  desirable  breeding  ewes 
are  in  this  grade  a  detailed  description  is  undertaken.  The  selec- 
tion of  choice  ewes  is  based  upon  form,  constitution,  age,  sound- 
ness, breeding,  quality,  and  condition. 

AGE  AND  SOUNDNESS. — As  stated  above,  the  most  desirable 
ages  are  two,  three  and  four  years,  and  more  particularly  two  and 
three  years.  When  breeding  ewes  go  to  the  country  it  is  the 
thought  of  the  purchaser  that  they  are  to  produce,  on  the  average, 
three  crops  of  lambs  before  they  are  sent  back  to  the  market  as  old 
mutton  ewes ;  hence,  if  the  age  is  anv  greater  than  four  years  the 
ability  to  produce  profitably  for  three  years  is  very  doubtful. 


iQo8.]  MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  629 

Soundness  refers  to  the  condition  of  the  mouth  and  udder.  A 
broken  mouth,  which  means  missing  teeth  or  teeth  worn  down 
short,  indicates  advanced  age  and  although  ewes  may  otherwise 
look  desirable  for  breeding  purposes  they  cannot  grade  as  choice  if 
the- teeth  are  not  intact.  It  is  necessary  that  the  choice  breeding 
ewe  have  a  sound  udder  and  it  is  pronounced  sound  when  it  is  soft 
and  pliable  to  the  touch  without  abnormal  development  on  either 
side.  Any  ewe  not  having  a  sound  udder  should  be  rejected  as  a 
breeder,  but  in  the  good  and  common  grades  some  carelessness  is 
exhibited  in  this  respect. 

BREEDING. — The  breeding  most  sought  after  is  some  one  of  the 
Down  breeds,  chiefly  because  of  the  dark  color  upon  the  face  and 
legs.  Early  in  the  season  of  the  breeding  ewe  trade,  when 
Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Virginia  are  taking  large  numbers  of 
breeding  ewes,  color  has  a  pronounced  influence  upon  the  desirabil- 
ity of  a  ewe.  Of  two  ewes,  one  with  light  markings  and  the  other 
with  dark,  but  equal  in  all  other  respects,  the  one  with  dark  mark- 
ings is  placed  a  grade  higher  than  the  other.  It  is  also  desirable 
that  the  breeding  of  choice  ewes  be  such  that  they  have  abundant 
fleeces  of  medium  wool,  which  means  that  the  wool  be  of  medium 
fineness  and  length,  dense  and  evenly  covering  all  parts  of  the  body. 
Since  they  are  to  remain  in  the  country  for  three  seasons  the  qual- 
ity and  quantity  of  wool  they  produce  is  no  inconsiderable  item. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  FORM. — The  smooth,  low  set,  symmetrical 
ewe  is  preferred  over  the  angular,  upstanding  ewe  with  uneven  top 
and  lower  lines.  Since  the  breeding  ewe  is  to  produce  and  nourish 
lambs  it  is  essential  that  she  be  deep  and  wide  in  the  chest,  and 
that  she  have  a  roomy  middle,  all  of  which  indicates  that  she 
has  a  strong  constitution  and  well  developed  assimilative  powers. 
Choice  ewes,  unlike  fancy  selected,  do  not  necessarily  have  to  be 
of  stvlish  carriage.  From  the  standpoint  of  breed  type,  they  are 
often  plain  about  the  head,  with  rather  long  necks,  and  long  in  the 
coupling  to  the  extent  that  they  could  hardly  be  regarded  as  com- 
pact. 

QUALITY. — Choice  breeding  ewes  should  have  smooth,  rather 
refined  features  and  bone  of  medium  size.  Ewes  of  this  grade  are 
used  tv>  produce  choice  and  prime  lambs  for  the  spring  and  early 
summer  markets,  and  without  a  great  deal  of  general  quality,  they 
could  scarcely  fulfill  their  mission.  It  is  well  to  distinguish  be- 
tween good  general  quality  and  over-refinement,  as  delicate,  over- 
refined  ewes  are  without  sufficient  constitution  to  be  profitable  pro- 
ducers. 


630  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

CONDITION. — While  choice  breeding  ewes  should  be  thrifty  and 
active,  fat  is  not  desirable  as  the  purchasei  prefers  to  place  these 
ewes  on  pasture  and  cheap  forage  feeds,  which  will  secure  the  con- 
dition desired  at  a  lower  cost  than  the  price  demanded  on  the 
market.  Breeding  ewes  are  somewhat  like  feeder  lambs  in  that 
they  are  the  result  of  a  sort  where  those  ewes  of  desirable  form, 
quality,  breeding,  age,  soundness,  and  thrift,  but  somewhat  lower 
than  mutton  condition  are  selected  cut  from  those  that  are  fatter 
and  desirable  for  mutton.  See  plate  42. 

GOOD  BREEDING  EWES 

Several  factors  combined  cause  breeding  ewes  to  grade  as  good, 
such  as  undesirable  markings,  age,  weight,  conformation  and  con- 
dition. Very  often  ewes  of  this  grade  are  shipped  from  the  Chi- 
cago market  to  parties  in  the  country  who  act  as  dealers,  and  these 
dealers  divide  the  shipment  into  small  lots  and  sell  them  to  the 
farmers.  In  this  way  small  uniform  lots  may  be  secured  and  some 
of  these  lots  may  grade  as  choice,  while  others  would  grade  as 
common,  and  still  others  would  grade  as  good.  See  plate  43. 

COMMON  BREEDING  EWES 

The  general  run  of  this  grade  show  no  single  line  of  breeding. 
In  many  instances  they  are  so  noticeably  advanced  in  age  that  it  is 
evident  their  stay  in  the  country  as  producers  will  be  short.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  b  tter  way  to  define  this  grade  than  to  say  they 
are  on  the  border  line  between  breeders  and  feeders,  and  fortu- 
nately they  are  not  sold  in  any  considerable  numbers  as  breeders. 
See  plate  44. 

BREEDING  BUCKS 

While  the  rams  sold  out  of  Chicago  market  as  breeders  vary 
in  age,  weight,  and  markings,  there  are  no  recognized  grades. 
Those  most  sought  after  are  dark  faced,  smooth,  low  set,  vigorous 
looking  rams  of  a  year  or  more  in  age.  In  times  of  great  scarcity 
ram  lambs  are  taken  out  for  breeding  purposes.  Inspection  of 
rams  selected  for  breeding  out  of  the  open  market  reveals  the  fact 
that  the  greater  percentage  show  undesirable  form  and  a  mixture 
of  breeding.  It  is  deemed  unnecessary  for  the  writer  to  go  beyond 
the  province  of  this  bulletin  to  point  out  to  intelligent  breeders  the 
effects  of  mating  grade  ewes  with  sires  of  the  type  generally  found 
on  the  open  market.  See  plate  45. 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP.  631 


PLATE  42. — CHOICE  BREEDING  EWES. 


PLATE  43. — GOOD  BREEDING  EWES. 


632 


BULLETIN  No.  129. 


[November, 


PLATE  44. — COMMON  BREEDING  EWES. 


PLATE  45. — BREEDING  BUCKS. 


J9o8.] 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


MISCELLANEOUS 


633 


Hot  House  Lambs  (Spring  Lambs). — The  term  "hot  house 
lambs"  refers  to  those  produced  early  and  marketed  before  the  gen- 
eral run  of  spring  lambs  start  to  market,  which  is  about  May  20. 
A  few  shipments  of  these  lambs  reach  the  Chicago  market  but  they 
are  called  "spring  lambs,"  not  "hot  house  lambs,"  and  they  do  not 
sell  as  well  correspondingly  as  the  same  kind  of  lambs  do  on  the 
eastern  markets.  Those  who  specialize  in  producing  "hot  house 
lambs"  usually  contract  them  to  be  sent  in  small  shipments  of 
dressed  carcasses  direct  to  the  retailer.  This  is  probably  the  most 
advantageous  way  to  market  them  because  they  are  slaughtered  be- 
fore they  are  old  enough  to  ship  well  alive. 


PLATE  46. — A  HOT  HOUSE  LAMB. 

"Hot  house  lambs"  are  most  in  demand  from  Christmas  until 
Easter.  They  must  be  fat  and  weigh  between  40  and  55  pounds. 
See  plate  46. 

Export  Sheep. — Most  of  the  sheep  selected  for  export  are  the 
heaviest  of  their  class.  They  are  usually  in  prime  condition  and  of 
the  choice  grade.  Wethers  are  preferred,  but  ewes,  yearlings,  and 
lambs  are  also  taken,  hence  the  term  "export"  cannot  be  said  to 
apply  to  any  particular  sub-class  of  mutton  sheep.  Many  buyers 
use  the  term  freely  to  designate  wethers,  yearlings,  ewes,  and  lambs 
heavy  in  weight  and  prime  in  condition  whether  they  be  taken  for 
export  or  not. 


634  BULLETIN  No.  129.  [November, 

THROW-OUTS 

This  is  a  term  applied  to  lambs  rejected  as  feeders.  After  a 
band  of  lambs  has  been  divided  into  the  mutton  and  feeder  classes, 
the  purchaser  of  the  feeder  end  usually  has  the  privilege  of  reject- 
ing those  not  suitable  for  feeding  purposes.  Lame  lambs,  those 
appearing  unthrifty,  entire  males,  those  large  enough  to  be  sus- 
piciously near  the  short  yearling  age,  and  frequently  black  lambs, 
make  up  the  rejections.  Black  lambs  are  not  always  rejected,  but 
a  number  of  Ohio  and  Michigan  feeders  object  to  them  because 
they  make  the  band  of  lambs  less  uniform  in  appearance. 

Throw-outs  sell  late  when  most  of  the  sales  for  the  day  have 
been  effected.  There  are  but  few  of  them  and  these  few  are  not 
uniform  in  weight  and  condition.  They  are  never  fat  enough  to 
be  turned  into  other  than  a  cheap  grade  of  mutton.  All  these  sur- 
rounding circumstances  make  them  the  quest  of  small  city  butchers 
who  cater  to  a  cheap  trade.  Throw-outs  are  often  called  "rejects," 
but  they  are  never  known  as  culls  or  by  any  of  the  terms  which 
denominate  the  grades  under  the  regular  classification.  Sometimes 
they  sell  on  a  basis  of  cull  lamb  prices ;  at  other  times,  upon  that 
for  medium  lambs. 

DEAD  SHEEP 

These  are  sheep  that  meet  with  death  in  transit.  Losses  are 
greatest  in  warm  weather  when  deaths  are  frequent  if  close  crowd- 
ing in  the  car  is  practiced.  Native  shippers  often  experience  a  loss 
of  sheep  in  transit  by  making  them  part  of  a  mixed  load  with  either 
swine  or  cattle.  They  usually  try  to  guard  against  such  losses  by 
partitioning  the  sheep  off  to  themselves,  but  the  bumping  of  the 
car  in  switching  often  breaks  down  the  partition  by  throwing  the 
animals  against  it. 

Dead  sheep  have  a  value  chiefly  for  their  wool.  The  best  are 
worth  twenty-five  cents  per  head.  It  is  claimed  that  fifty  percent 
of  them  are  worthless  on  account  of  the  wool  being  mangled  and 
trampled  off. 

GOATS 

Goats  are  sold  for  slaughter  provided  they  are  in  good  condi- 
tion, but  they  do  not  sell  on  a  par  with  sheep.  Only  a  few  are 
sold  on  the  Chicago  market,  and  hence  they  are  not  graded.  If 
they  are  too  thin  in  condition  to  sell  for  slaughter,  they  are  sold 
to  go  to  the  country  to  browse  over  brush  lands.  This  demand  is 
very  uncertain,  and  offerings  for  this  purpose  are  frequently  held 
for  several  days  before  they  can  be  sold.  See  plate  47. 


1908.} 


MARKET  CLASSES  AND  GRADES  OF  SHEEP. 


635 


1908.} 


AUTHOR  INDEX 


637 


AUTHOR  INDEX 


Coffey,  W.  C.,  Market  classes 
and  grades  of  sheep,  Bull. 
129 577-635 

Davenport,  Eugene  and  Rietz, 
H.  L.,  Type  and  variability 
in  corn,  Bull.  119 1-38 

East,  E.  M. ,  A  study  of  the  fac- 
tors influencing  the  improve- 
ment of  the  potato,   Bull. 
127 375-456 

Hopkins,  C.  G.,  and  Pettit,  J.  H 
The  fertility  in  Illinois 
soils,  Bull.  123 187-294 

Hopkins,  C.  G.,  Readheimer, 
J.  E.  and  Eckhardt,  W.  G., 
Thirty  years  of  crop  rota- 
tions on  the  common  prairie 
soil  of  Illinois,  Bull.  125... . 

323-56 


Hume,  A.  N.,  Center,  O.  D. 
and  Hegnauer,  Leonard, 
Distance  between  hills  for 
corn  in  the  Illinois  corn 

belt,  Bull.  126 357-74 

Variety  tests  of  wheat,  Bull. 
121 71-92 

Lloyd,  J.  W.,  Marketing  the 
muskmelon,  Bull.  124... 295-322 

Obrecht,  E.  C.,  Market  classes 
and  grades  of  horses  and 
mules.  Bull.  122 93-186 

Smith,  L.  H.,  Ten  generations 
of  corn  breeding,  Bull.  128 
457-575 

Trueman,  J.  M.,  Milk  supply  of 
Chicago  and  twenty -six 
other  cities,  Bull.  120 41-7 


638 


INDEX 


INDEX 


The  headings  in  capitals  are  the  subjects  of  entire  bulletins 


Acid  phosphate 191 

Alfalfa 190,236 

Artillery  horses 119-21 

Barnyard 61 

Black  clay  loam  prairie  soils 

:. 233-4 

Bottling  plants 42 

Bowlder  clay 193 

Break  joint 594 

Breeders,  Corn 81 

Breeding  plot  for  corn 464-5 

Brown  loam 245 

Brown  silt  loam  prairie  soils 

220-33 

Butter-fat  in  milk 43,  49-51,  53 

Bucks 607-9,630 

Cab  horses 132-4 

Carriage  horses 124  34 

Cavalry  horses 148-51 

Chumo 380 

Chunks 108-14 

Climax  baskets 306-7 

Clusius 382-3 

Coach  horses 125-8 

Cobs,  (horses) 128-9 

CORN  BREEDING,  TEN 

GENERATIONS  OF.. .457-575 

Appendix,  Tables. 489-575 

Experiments,  General  plan  of 

463-8 

Fundamental  principles  —  458-63 
Secondary  effects  produced 

by  selection 476-88 

To  influence  the  oil  content 

473-5 

To  influence  the  protein  con- 
tent  468-73 

Corn,  Effects  of  soil  foods  on  ..  213 
Corn  improvement,  importance 

of 457-8 

CORN  IN  THE  ILLINOIS 

CORN  BELT,  DISTANCE 

BETWEEN  HILLS 357-74 


Northern    Illinois,    Results 

from 361-3 

A  ppendix 369-74 

Plan  of  experiment  357-6 1 

Related  experiments 368-9 

Soil  fertility,  Relation  of,  to 
the  most  desirable  thick- 
ness of  planting 365-8 

Southern  part  of  corn  belt, 
Summary  of  results  from 

364-5 

CORN,  TYPE  AND  VARIA- 
BILITY IN 1-38 

Appendix,  Graphic  represen- 
tation of  statistics 27-8 

Effect  of  fertility  upon  22-6 

General 1-16 

Influence  of  selection  upon.  .16-21 

Corn,  Types  of 2-13 

"frequency  distribution",  or 

mode 3-4 

"population" 2-3 

Cotton  mules 172-3 

Cowpea 190,  212 

Cows,  Cleaning 61 

Healthy 60 

CROP  ROTATIONS,  THIR- 
TY YEARS  OF,  ON  THE 
COMMON  PRAIRIE  SOIL 

OF  ILLINOIS 323-56 

Crops,  Rotation  of. .  .191,  219,  340-6 
Culls- 
Lambs 592  4 

Muskmelons 303 

Curd ' 48 

Dairy  barns 58-61 

Dairy  score  card  —    66-70 

Dawson's  golden  chaff 88-9 

Deep  gray  silt  loam 244-5 

Draft  horses 103-8 

Mules 176-8 

Ear  of  corn,  Type  of 485-6 


1908.} 


INDEX 


639 


Ears  of  corn,   Distribution   of 

length  of 2 

Ewes 604-7,  624-30 

Experiment   field,    History   of 

the  old 327-34 

Export  mules 179 

Fanning  mill 79 

Farm  mules 174-5 

Feeders — 

Horses 153-4 

Sheep 609-27 

Fire  horses 123-4 

Flower  of  the  potato 385-7 

Fulcaster  wheat 89 

Fultz  wheat 90 

Gaits  of  horses  140-3 

Glaciation  on  Illinois  soils 

193-203,  221-3,  299  231,233-5, 

238-9241,  244-5,  259-61 

Glossary  of  some  horse  and  mule 

market  terms 181-6 

Goats 634 

Grading  melons  for  shipping.  .302-6 
Gray  silt  loam  on  tight  clay. .  .210-20 
History  of  the  old  experiment 

field 327-34 

Horses,    Market    classes    and 

grades  of 93-164 

HORSES  AND  MULES,  MAR- 
KET     CLASSES       AND 

GRADES  OF 93-186 

H  unters,  (horses)  144-8 

Hybridization  and  selection  of 

wheat 90 

Illinois  glaeiation  193-5 

Illinois  soils — 

Areas  and  types 193-5 

Bottom  land  244-5 

Individual  types 210-44 

Sand  and  swamp  areas 245-56 

Illinois  soils,  Classification..  .257-94 

lowan  brown  sandy  loam 242-4 

Kainit 216 

Kharkov  wheat 85 

"K.-B."  No.  2  wheat 90 

Lambs 580-94,  609-15,  633-4 

Loam — 

Black  clay 233-4 

Brown 255 

lowan  brown  sandy 242-4 

Yellow  fine  sandy 237-8 


Malakoff  wheat 84-5 

Manures 191-2,  197,  198 

Market  classification  of  horses- 
Classes 100-2 

Importance 94-5 

Requirements 95-100 

Milk- 
Bottling  63-4 

Depots,  unsanitary 43,  57-8 

Direct  method  of  delivery 42 

Pasturized 42 

Transportation 62-3 

Utensils 62 

Milk,    Requirements  for  clean 

60-4 

MILK  SUPPLY  OF  CHICAGO 
AND   TWENTY-SIX 

OTHER  CITIES  41-70 

Conditions 43-64 

Duty   of  the  consumer  and 

city 64-6 

Methods  of  marketing 41-2 

Mining  mules 170-1 

Morainal  deposits 202 

Mules,     Market    classes     and 

grades  of 165-86 

MUSKMELON,  MARKETING 

THE 295-322 

Handling  the  crop 298-319 

Market  demands 295-7 

Selling 319-22 

Mutton  sheep 579-609 

Oil  of  corn  457-8,473-5 

Origin  of  the  potato 380-3 

Packing  cases  for  melons 295-7 

Packing  shed  for  melons 313-8 

Padi  wheat 85 

Park  horses 129-131 

Peat 251-3 

Peaty  and  alkali  soils,  253-5 

Peaty  swamp  lands. . . .- 251-2 

Pesterboden  wheat 88 

Phosphorus , 208-10 

Physical  structure  of  the  pota- 
to  426-9 

Picking  melons,  Time  for ..  .298-302 
Plant  food- 
Available  205-8 

Productivity 197 

Required  by  crops 188-90 

Results..  199 


40 


INDEX 


[N~orember, 


Sources  of 191-2 

Plugs- 
Horses 158 

Mules 178 

Polo  ponies 153 

POTATO,  A  STUDY  OF  THE 
FACTORS      INFLUENC-       , 
ING       THE      IMPROVE- 
MENT OF  THE 375-456 

Breeding,  Methods  of 391-7 

Bibliography 450-6 

Chemical  composition,  Va- 
riation in 437-49 

Degeneration,    Hypothesis 

of 410-6 

Discontinuous  variations.  ...417 

Graft-Hybrids 418 

Inheritance  of  characters 

in  tuber  selection 398-409 

Modern  plant 385-90 

Original  plant 380-4 

Other  species,  Use  of 378-9 

Quality 419-36 

Potato  plants,  Crossing  of 393 

Productive  capacity  of  soils.  188 -91 

Protein  in  corn. 190,  457,  468-73 

Range  horses 154-8 

Road  horses 134-40 

Roadsters 136-40 

Rock  phosphate 192,  231-2 

Rudy  wheat 90 

Runabout  horses 134-6 

Saddle  horses 140-53 

Sand  soil 246-9 

Sediment  in  milk 46,  53 

Seed- 
Corn,  Selection  of 465-8 

Wheat,  Source  and  change  79-82 
SHEEP,  MARKET  CLASSES 

AND  GRADES  OF 577-635 

Breeding 627-30 

Feeder 609-27 

Miscellaneous 633-4 

Mutton 579-80 

Native  and  western 578-9 

Shropshire  sheep 628 

Silt : 194-5 

Silt  loam- 
Brown  220-33 

Deep  gray. 244-5 


Gray 210-20 

Yellow 234-7 

Yellow  gray 238-42 

Soil  analysis,  Meaning  of...  195-200 
Soil  areas  and  types,  Compar- 
ison of 193-9 

Soil  experiments,   The   newer 

series  of 334-56 

Soil  fertility,  Relation  of,  to 
the  most  desirable  thick- 
ness of  planting  corn 365-8 

Soil  foods,  Effects  of,  on  corn.. 213 
Soil,   Individual   types  of  Illi- 
nois  210-256 

Soil  map  of  Illinois.  ..following  192 
Soil  types  and  depths,  Compar- 
ison of 200-5 

Soils,  The  fertility  in  Illinois. . 

187-294,  365-8 

Solanum  Commersonii 380 

Solanum  tuberosum 380,  448 

Stags 607-9 

Sugar  mules 173-4 

Systems  of  farming 323-7 

Grain 325-6 

Live  stock 326-7 

Tubers 387 

Turkey  red  wheat 84 

Type,  Determination  of,  in  corn 

2-13 

Effect  on  kernel 484-5 

Wagon  horses  114-24 

Weeds  (horses) 158 

Wethers 598-603,  619-23 

Wheat- 
American 88-92 

Hungarian 88 

Russian 84-7 

Wheat,  Hybridization  and  se- 
lection of . ..."  90 

Wheat,  Varieties,  Classifica- 
tion of 82-4- 

Wheat,  Variety  tests  of 71-9. 

Wheedling  wheat 90 

Yearlings,  Sheep 594-8,  615-9 

Yellow  tine  sandy  loam  hill  land 

237-8 

Yellow-gray  silt  loam 238-42 

Yellow  silt  loam  hill  land 234-7 


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